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NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Report  of  the  Committee 


ON 


The  Place  of  Industries  in 
Public  Education 


TO  THE 


National  Council  of  Education 
July,  1910 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ASSOCIATION 
1910 


Copies  of  this  Report  may  be  obtained  of  Irwin  Shepard,  Sec- 
retary N.  E.  A.,  Winona,  Minnesota,  for  15  cents  per  copy.  Ten 
or  more  copies  to  one  address  will  be  supplied,  express  prepaid,  at 
a  discount  of  20%  from  the  cost  for  a  single  copy. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


Report  of  the  Committee 


ON 


The   Place  of  Industries  in 
Public  Education 


TO  THE 


National  Council  of  Education 
July,  1910 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  ASSOCIATION 

1910 


<•: 


CONTENTS 


Letter  of  Transmittal      ..... 
Historical  Statement        ..... 

Resolutions  of  Department  of  Manual  Training 

Approval  of  Board  of  Directors 

Organization  of  Committee,  with  List 

Lists  of  Subcommittees 


Introduction  by  the  Chairman  ......... 

The  Industrial  Factor  in  Social  Progress  ........ 

The  Industrial  Factor  in  Education  ........ 

Notes  on  History  of  Industrial  Education  in  the  United  States     .... 

I.  Report  of  Subcommittee  on  Place  of  Industries  in  the  Elementary  School 

Work  of  Primary  Grades  ......... 

The  Grammar  Grades      .          .          .          . 

Industries  in  the  Manual-Training  Courses          ...... 

Selection  of  Industries       .          .          .          . 

Special  Industrial  Classes  .         .          .         .          .         ... 

Further  Suggestions  Regarding  Course  of  Study  

A. , Studies  of  Industries  in  the  Primary  Grades     ..... 

1.  The  Evolutionary  Approach     ....... 

2.  The  Neighborhood  Approach  ....'... 

B.  Studies  of  Industries  in  Grammar  Grades        ..... 

1.  The  Ceramic  Industries  ........ 

2.  A  Study  of  the  Machine  Shop  in  Grade  VI         .          . 

3.  A  Study  of  Printing 

4.  A  Study  of  the  Foundry  .          .          .          . 

C.  Special  Industrial  Classes       ..... 

II.  Report  of  Subcommittee  on  Intermediate  Industrial  Schools  . 

1.  The  Meaning  of  Industrial  Education 

2.  The  Social  Demand  for  Intermediate  Industrial  Education 

3.  Industrial  Fields  for  Specialized  Education  in  Industrial  Arts 

4.  Groups  of  Children  Available  for  Intermediate  Industrial  Schools    . 

5.  The  Practicable  Aims  of  Intermediate  Industrial  Education    . 

6.  Organization  of  Subject-Matter   .... 

7.  Relation  of  Intermediate  Industrial  Education  to  Other  Forms  of  Educa- 

tion       ..... 

8.  Organization  and  Administration 

9.  Cost  and  Source  of  Support 

10.  Co-operation  of  School  and  Shop 
ir.  Schools  Already  Existing     . 

III.  Report  of  Subcommittee  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education  in  the  Second- 

ary School  ....  ... 

1.  Letters  Sent  Out  and  Replies 

2.  Present  Status  of  Manual-Training  High  Schools     . 

iii 

>«> 


201303 


iv  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

3.  Relation  of  Shopwork  to  Academic  Work        ...  .          .         92 

4.  Preparation  for  College  in  Manual-Training  High  Schools  .  .         93 

5.  Record  of  Graduates ...         95 

6.  The  Functions  of  Technical  High  Schools        .          .          .  .          .          -97 

7.  Relation  to  Trade  Schools 104 

8.  Evening  Trade  Instruction  in  Secondary  Industrial  Schools  .          .          .109 

9.  The  Industrial  Training  of  Girls    .          .          .          .          .  .          .          .no 

Minority  Report     .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .          .114 

Selected  Bibliography  on  Industrial  Education 116 

Books .116 

United  States  Government  Reports     .          .         .          .  .          .          .117 

State  and  City  Reports .117 

Proceedings  of  Societies  and  Associations    ...  .118 

National  Education  Association  .....  .118 

Natural  Society  for  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  .          .          .119 

Council  of  Supervisors  of  Manual  Arts          .          .          .          .          .          .        no 

Eastern  Art  and  Manual  Training  Association       .          .          .          .  120 

Western  Drawing  and  Manual  Training  Association       .          .          .          .120 

Joint  Meeting,  Eastern  and  Western  Manual  Training  Association  .        120 

Miscellaneous    ...........        120 

Periodicals  121 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OP 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 

ON 

THE  PLACE  OF  INDUSTRIES  IN  PUBLIC 
EDUCATION 

To  The  Board  of  Directors,  National  Education  Association: 

The  undersigned  Committee  on  the  Place  of  Industries  in  Public  Educa- 
tion, appointed  at  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  at  Los  Angeles,  Cal., 
July  n,  1907,  has  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  report. 

The  report  proper  is  preceded  by  an  historical  statement  as  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  committee  by  the  secretary,  an  introduction  written  by  the  chairman, 
and  by  the  three  following  papers: 

"The  Industrial  Factor  in  Social  Progress,"  by  FRANK  T.  CARLTON, 
Professor  of  Economics  and  History,  Albion  College,  Mich. 

"The  Industrial  Factor  in  Education,"  by  ERNEST  N.  HENDERSON,  Pro- 
fessor of  Psychology  and  Education,  Adelphi  College,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

"History  of  Industrial  Education  in  the  United  States,"  by  the  secretary, 
CHARLES  R.  RICHARDS,  Director,  Cooper  Union,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

At  the  end  of  the  report  is  a  selected  bibliography  prepared  by  Howard 
D.  Brundage  and  the  secretary. 

JESSE  D.  BURKS,  Chairman  ERNEST  B.  KENT 

CHARLES  R.  RICHARDS,  Secretary       CHARLES  H.  KEYES 
EDGAR  S.  BARNEY  E.  EUPHROSYNE  LANGLEY 

HOWARD  D.  BRUNDAGE  FRANK  M.  LEAVITT 

FLORA  J.  COOKE  GEORGE  A.  MERRILL 

ARTHUR  D.  DEAN  CHARLES  H.  MORSE 

WILLIAM  H.  ELSON  CARROLL  G.  PEARSE 

CARLETON  B.  GIBSON  DAVID  S.  SNEDDEN 

CALVIN  N.  KENDALL  CHARLES  F.  WARNER 

HISTORICAL  STATEMENT 

At  the  meeting  of  the  Board  of  Directors  of  the  National  Education  Asso- 
ciation on  July  12,  1907,  in  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  the  following  resolutions  were 
communicated  to  the  Board  of  Directors  by  Mr.  Frank  M.  Leavitt,  president 
of  the  Department  of  Manual  Training: 

REPORT  OF  COMMITTEE  ON  RESOLUTIONS  OF  THE  MANUAL-TRAINING  DEPARTMENT  OF  THE 
NATIONAL   EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION   NOW   IN   SESSION,    JULY    II,    1907 

WHEREAS,  The  accumulative  work  of  the  department  during  the  last  two  years 
seeking  a  more  rational  statement  of  courses  of  manual  training,  seems  now  to  indicate  a 
necessity  for  some  definite  work  by  a  special  committee. 

Be  it  therefore  resolved,  That  the  manual-training  department  of  the  National  Educa- 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


tion  Association,  now  in  session,  recommend  the  appointment  of  a  committee  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  data  of  the  manual-training  work  done  thruout  this  country,  that 
suggestive  courses  adaptable  to  various  conditions  found  therein,  may  be  formulated  by 
them. 

Further  be  it  resolved,  That  this  committee  consist  of  three  persons  now  actively  engaged 
in  manual  training,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  a  superintendent  of  schools,  a 
teacher  of  art,  a  child's  study  specialist,  a  grade  teacher,  and  a  representative  from  such 
other  departments  as  may  be  deemed  advisable  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  their  work. 

Be  it  further  resolved,  That  the  aforesaid  committee  of  three  be  appointed  by  the  presi- 
dent of  this  department.  • 

Be  it  further  resolved,  That  this  committee  be  appointed  for  a  term  of  two  years,  being 
requested  to  make  a  preliminary  report  at  the  next  meeting  of  this  association. 

Resolved,  That  a  commitee  of  one  be  appointed  by  the  president  of  this  department  to 
make  formal  application  to  the  Board  of-  Directors  of  the  Association  for  an  appropriation 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  committee. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

CHAS.  M.  MILLER,  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  Chairman 
AUGUST  AHRENS,  Warrensburg,  Mo. 
ADA  F.  BLANCHARD,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Committee  on  Resolutions 

On  motion,  the  application  of  the  Department  of  Manual  Training  was 
received  and  approved  and  it  was  ordered  that  the  desired  committee  be 
appointed  by  the  president  of  the  Department  of  Manual  Training  and  that 
$500,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  be  appropriated  for  the  expenses 
of  that  committee. 

The  committee  was  organized  at  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Super- 
intendence at  Washington,  February,  1908,  with  the  following  membership 
as  appointed: 

JESSE  D.  BURKS,  Director,  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
Chairman. 

CHARLES  R.  RICHARDS,  Director,  Cooper  Union,  New  York  City,  Secretary. 

EDGAR  S.  BARNEY,  Principal,  Hebrew  Technical  School,  New  York  City. 

HOWARD  D.  BRUNDAGE,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

CARLETON  B.  GIBSON,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Columbus,  Ga. 

CHARLES  H.  KEYES,  Supervisor  of  Schools,  Hartford,  Conn. 

ELIZABETH  EUPHROSYNE  LANGLEY,  School  of  Education,  University  of  Chicago. 

FRANK  M.  LEAVITT,  Director  of  Drawing  and  Manual  Training,  Boston,  Mass 

GEORGE  A.  MERRILL,  Principal,  California  School  of  Mechanical  Arts,  San  Fran 
cisco,  Cal. 

CHARLES  H.  MORSE,  Secretary,  Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  Mass.         ^ 

CHARLES  F.  WARNER,  Principal,  Technical  High  School,  Springfield,  Mass. 

It  was  decided  at  this  time  to  increase  the  scope  of  the  report  to  include  a 
study  of  the  entire  question  of  the  place  of  industries  in  public  education  and 
a  plan  for  the  arrangement  of  the  report  was  adopted. 

The  committee  made  a  report  of  progress  at  the  Cleveland  meeting  of  the 
National  Education  Association  in  July,  1908,  and  at  this  meeting  the  Board 
of  Directors  authorized  the  increase  of  the  number  of  the  committee,  to  not  less 
than  fifteen  and  not  more  than  twenty. 


INTRODUCTION 


According  to  the  terms  of  this  authorization  the  following  members  were 
added  to  the  committee: 

FLORA  J.  COOKE,  Principal,  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago,  111. 

ARTHUR  D.  DEAN,  Chief  of  Trades  Division,  New  York  State  Education  Department. 

WILLIAM  H.  ELSON,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

CALVIN  N.  KENDALL,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

ERNEST  B.  KENT,  Director  of  Manual  and  Industrial  Training,  Jersey  City,  NJ. 

CARROLL  G.  PEARSE,  Superintendent  of  Schools,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

DAVID  S.  SNEDDEN,  Commissioner  of  Education  for  Massachusetts,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  work  of  preparing  the  main  body  of  the  report  has  been  done  by  three 
subcommittees,  as  follows: 

THE    PLACE   OF   INDUSTRIES   IN   THE   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS 

Elizabeth  Euphrosyne  Langley,  Chairman     Flora  J.  Cooke 
.  Ernest  B.  Kent,  Secretary         ,  Calvin  N.  Kendall 

Howard  D.  Brundage  Frank  M.  Leavitt 

INTERMEDIATE    INDUSTRIAL    SCHOOLS 

Carleton  B.  Gibson,  Chairman  Edgar  S.  Barney 

David  S.  Snedden,  Secretary  Charles  H.  Morse 

Carroll  G.  Pearse 

INDUSTRIAL    AND   TECHNICAL   EDUCATION    IN   THE    SECONDARY   SCHOOLS 

Charles  H.  Keyes,  Chairman  William  H.  Elson 

Arthur  D.  Dean,  Secretary  George  A.  Merrill 

Charles  F.  Warner 

The  secretary  of  the  general  committee  was  ex  officio  a  member  of  each 
of  the  subcommittees. 

At  the  Denver  meeting  of  the  National  Education  Association  the  General 
Secretary  of  the  Association  was  authorized  by  the  Board  of  Directors  to  print 
and  distribute  an  edition  of  the  report  sufficiently  large  to  supply  the  active 
members  of  the  Association. 

CHARLES  R.  RICHARDS,  Secretary 


INTRODUCTION 

The  manual-training  "movement"  and  its  successor,  the  present  vigorous 
industrial-education  propaganda,  have  exercised  for  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century  a  dominant  influence  in  the  educational  thought  of  the  United 
States.  The  early  arguments  for  manual  training  and  the  later  arguments  for 
industrial  education  have  a  singular  and  significant  resemblance.  More 
vital  motive  for  school  work,  better  adaptation  of  the  curriculum  to  the  needs 
of  the  rank  and  file,  reduction  of  school  "  mortality,"  and  promotion  of  national 
industrial  efficiency — these  are  among  the  more  urgent  reasons  that  have  been 
advanced,  thruout  the  entire  period,  for  a  more  adequate  attention  to 
"handwork"  as  a  supplement  to,  or  substitute  for,  the  traditional  "headwork  " 
of  the  schools. 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


With  the  abandonment  of  the  theory  of  "general  training"  based  upon  the 
so-called  "faculty  psychology"  the  arguments  for  manual  activities  in  the 
school,  while  retaining  much  of  their  original  form  and  phraseology,  have 
been  given  more  specific  application  than  was  at  first  thought  necessary. 
Not  motor  training,  but  specific  motor  abilities;  not  accuracy,  judgment,  and 
honesty,  but  keener  appreciation  of  some  of  the  most  significant  industrial 
processes;  not  preparation  for  life — any  life — but  preparation  for  a  specific 
kind  of  life  is  now  urged  by  those  who  are  leading  in  the  present  demand  for 
industrial  education. 

Notwithstanding  the  obvious  similarity  and  direct  connection  between 
the  early  and  later  attitudes  toward  handwork  and  industrial  activities,  there 
is,  then,  a  most  important  distinction  between  the  two  points  of  view.  The 
earlier  movement  emphasized  abstract  psychological  values;  the  later  places 
the  emphasis  upon  concrete  social  values.  This  change  in  emphasis  is,  of 
course,  but  one  aspect  of  the  general  trend  of  educational  thought  for  the  past 
generation. 

The  present  report  attempts  to  gather  up  and  put  into  coherent  and  con- 
venient form  the  results  of  these  thirty-five  years  of  thought  and  practice. 
If  this  service  has  been  acceptably  rendered,  such  reiteration  of  accepted 
theory  as  has  characterized  educational  discussions  for  three  decades,  may  be 
appreciably  reduced  during  the  next  three  decades.  A  larger  proportion  of 
the  energy  of  educational  leaders  may  then  be  devoted  to  working  out  in  practice 
the  theories  that  all  accept;  to  testing  both  theory  and  practice  by  facts  instead 
of  by  opinions;  to  measuring  results  by  standards  that  make  comparison 
possible  and  intelligible;  and  to  reporting  results  so  accurately  and  so  clearly 
that  school  officers,  students  of  education,  and  citizens  anywhere  may  find  it 
easy  and  profitable  to  read  the  story  of  educational  achievement  for  every 
community  that  has  a  story  to  tell. 

Readers  of  this  report  may  be  disappointed  at  the  relatively  small  atten- 
tion given  to  results  as  distinguished  from  opinions  in  the  field  of  industrial 
education.  For  this  relative  emphasis  there  are  several  reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  a  similar  disproportion  has  marked  the  actual  develop- 
ment of  manual  training  itself  and,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of  industrial 
education  as  well.  Opinions  have  been  more  plentiful  than  facts,  and  vastly 
more  has  been  said  than  done.  About  one-half  of  the  thirteen  hundred  city 
and  town  school  "systems"  in  the  United  States,  it  is  true,  have  introduced, 
somewhere  in  their  curricula,  various  forms  of  constructive  activity  denomi- 
nated handwork  or  manual  training.  In  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these 
cases,  however,  does  the  handwork  extend  thru  all  of  the  grades  of  the 
elementary  schools,  and  in  only  about  one  hundred  cases  into  the  high  schools. 
Of  the  six  hundred  school  systems  having  manual  training,  three  hundred 
give  less  than  an  hour  a  week  to  it;  and  only  thirty-seven  devote  as  much  as 
half  an  hour  a  day  to  the  subject. 

In  the  field  of  elementary  education,  then,  the  continuous  and  at  times 


INTRODUCTION 


5 


strenuous  discussion  of  thirty  years  has  not  produced  results  commensurate 
with  the  importance  attributed  to  manual  training  by  its  advocates.  Not- 
withstanding much  notable  advance,  due  largely  to  the  influence  of  manual 
training,  toward  a  more  intimate  and  vital  connection  between  thinking  and 
doing  in  the  school,  handwork  in  the  school  is  still  in  the  main  abstract,  iso- 
lated, impractical,  and  unsocial  in  character. 

The  industrial-education  propaganda  of  the  past  decade  has  likewise,  in 
a  measure,  failed  to  affect  educational  practice  to  the  extent  that  public  interest, 
professional  and  lay  discussion,  and  legislative  provisions  might  have  justified 
one  in  expecting.  There  is  doubtless  a  keener  appreciation  than  ever  before 
of  the  social  need  for  industrial  education;  but  there  has  been  relatively  little 
advance  in  the  way  of  detailed  working-out  of  curricula,  organization,  and 
procedure  for  industrial  schools  of  various  types.  Within  the  last  few  years, 
however,  the  demand  for  industrial  education  has  made  itself  felt  even  within 
the  field  commonly  assumed  heretofore  to  be  the  exclusive  territory  of  element- 
ary education;  a  few  public  intermediate  schools  and  trades  schools  of  a 
distinctly  vocational  type  having  come  into  being.  The  result  of  these 
experiments  is  being  awaited  with  eager  interest. 

In  the  field  of  secondary  education,  there  is  even  greater  discrepancy 
between  the  promise  of  theory  and  the  reality  of  practice.  There  are  about 
one  hundred  and  fifty  schools  of  secondary  grade  in  the  country  that  are  classi- 
fied in  the  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education  as  manual  and  industrial 
training  schools.  Of  this  number,  however,  only  one-half  are  reported 
as  giving  any  attention  to  the  manual  arts.  Thirty  of  these  are  public  high 
schools;  most  of  which  devote  from  five  to  nine  hours  a  week  to  manual, 
technical,  and  industrial  instruction.  Some  give  as  little  as  four  hours  a  week, 
and  a  very  few  as  much  as  twelve  hours  a  week;  but  fewer  than  half  of  them 
give  as  much  as  one-third  of  their  time  to  such  instruction.  With  two  or  three 
possible  exceptions,  none  of  these  public  high  schools  may  be  ranked  as  tech- 
nical high  schools  according  to  the  definition  proposed  in  the  present  report — 
the  distinctive  industrial  or  vocational  purpose  being  almost  uniformly  absent. 

A  second  reason  for  the  disproportionale  attention  given  in  this  report  to 
opinion,  without  an  adequate  body  of  supporting  facts,  is  the  difficulty  of 
obtaining  verified  data  from  the  records  and  reports  that  are  available.  Aside 
from  bare  statements  concerning  enrollment,  attendance,  and  gross  expenditure, 
but  few  records  of  actual  achievement  and  few  measures  of  efficiency  can  be 
obtained  as  a  basis  for  exact  study  of  the  problems  involved.  Opinions  are 
numerous  but  facts  are  few  when  one  seeks  to  ascertain  what  are  the  elements 
and  what  the  evidences  of  "industrial  intelligence"  of  various  types;  when 
these  evidences  may  be  expected  to  appear  in  boys  and  girls;  how  natural 
aptitudes  may  best  be  discovered  and  fostered;  how  the  industries  are  to  be 
classified  on  the  basis  of  mental  and  physical  abilities  required;  what  indus- 
tries do  and  what  do  not  lend  themselves  to  effective  treatment  thru  indus- 
trial education;  or  what  is  the  probable  cost  of  various  forms  of  industrial 


NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


training.  Authoritative  answers  to  such  questions  are  essential  to  a  safe  and 
orderly  development  of  a  program  of  industrial  education.  Actual  experiment 
and  practice,  however,  are  so  limited  in  extent,  and  descriptions  of  results 
so  lacking  in  accuracy  and  detail,  that  any  careful  and  comprehensive  study 
of  industrial  education  must  very  largely  lay  its  own  foundation. 

Thorogoing  scientific  investigation  of  the  problems  of  industrial  education 
clearly  ought  to  be  made.  Limitations  of  time,  of  financial  resources,  and 
possibly  of  imagination  and  vision,  however,  have  not  permitted  the  committee 
to  ascertain,  by  original  research,  data  necessary  to  a  critical  and  constructive 
report  that  should  be  at  once  comprehensive  and  convincing. 

The  report  is,  nevertheless,  both  critical  and  constructive  in  its  purpose 
and  method.  It  looks  forward  to  the  further  accumulation  of  facts,  to  con- 
stant comparison,  and  to  progressive  readjustment  of  thought  and  practice 
in  the  field  that  it  attempts  to  survey.  The  report,  it  is  hoped,  will  furnish 
many  points  upon  which  those  who  continue  to  explore  this  field  may  get  their 
bearings.  Even  if  some  of  these  points  prove  to  have  been  wrongly  located, 
the  report  will  have  served  a  useful  purpose  if  it  leads  more  careful  observers 
to  verify  its  base  lines  and  test  its  calculations. 

The  report,  it  will  be  noted,  makes  no  pretense  of  considering  all  of  the 
obvious  relations  of  industry  to  public  education.  The  household  arts  and 
agriculture,  for  example,  are  hardly  more  than  mentioned,  tho  these  are 
clearly  among  the  most  significant  of  all  industries.  Trades  schools,  evening 
continuation  schools,  and  technical  schools  of  college  grade,  likewise,  are  con- 
sidered only  so  far  as  to  show  their  place  in  a  comprehensive  scheme  of  in- 
dustrial education;  not  at  all  in  detail.  The  aim  has  been  to  state,  with  some 
completeness,  a  theory  of  the  place  of  industries  in  public  education;  and  to 
illustrate  the  specific  application  of  such  a  theory  to  a  certain  type  of  school 
in  each  of  the  three  fields  of  elementary,  intermediate,  and  secondary  education. 

Briefly  summarized,  the  results  of  the  committee's  work  may  be  stated 
as  follows: 

1.  Industry,  as  a  controlling  factor  in  social  progress,  has  for  education  a  fundamental 
and  permanent  significance. 

2.  Educational  standards,  applicable  in  an  age  of  handicraft,  presumably  need  radical 
change  in  the  present  day  of  complex  and  highly  specialized  industrial  development. 

3.  The  social  aim  of  education  and  the  psychological  needs  of  childhood  alike  require 
that  industrial    (manual-constructive)    activities    form    an    important    part    of    school 
occupations. 

a)  In  the  elementary  school,  such  occupations  are  necessary  to  provide  concreteness 
of  motive  and  meaning;  to  insure  positive  and  lasting  results  for  instruction;  and  to 
bring  about  a  vital  relation  between  life  within  the  school  and  life  outside. 

6)  In  intermediate  schools,  industrial  occupations  are  an  important  element  in  the 
wide  range  of  experience  necessary  for  the  proper  testing  of  children's  aptitudes  as  a  basis 
for  subsequent  choice  of  specific  pursuits  either  in  vocations  or  in  higher  schools. 

c}  In  secondary  schools,  industrial  occupations  properly  furnish  the  central  and  domi- 
nant factor  in  the  education  of  those  pupils  who  make  final  choice  of  an  industrial  vocation. 
Vocational  purpose  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  the  "technical"  high  school  as  distinct 
from  the  "Manual  Training"  high  school . 


INTRODUCTION 


4.  The  differences  among  children  as  to  aptitudes,  interests,  economic  resources, 
and  prospective  careers  furnish  the  basis  for  a  rational  as  opposed  to  a  merely  formal  dis- 
tinction between  elementary,  secondary,  and  higher  education. 

Later  in  the  report,  these  three  stages  of  education  are  clearly  denned  from 
this  point  of  view.  The  proposed  definitions  are,  of  course,  radically  different 
from  those  that  underlie  prevailing  usage.  The  constant  introduction  into 
current  discussion  of  such  terms  as  " intermediate "  school,  " upper  grammar" 
grades,  "lower  high"  schools,  "junior"  and  "senior"  colleges,  is  in  itself  evi- 
dence of  a  real  need  for  readjusting  both  our  educational  concepts  and  our  educa- 
tional organization  to  conform  more  nearly  to  the  facts  of  genetic  psychology  and 
social  requirement.  From  this  point  of  view,  then,  it  is  of  the  highest  importance 
that  attention  be  directed  upon  the  differences  in  function  which  are  more  or  less 
clearly  recognized  in  all  attempts  to  separate  education  into  its  several  stages. 

Notwithstanding  some  confusion  in  terminology,  due  to  an  attempt  to 
follow  prevailing  usage  so  far  as  possible,  the  committee's  report  as  a  whole 
recognizes  the  distinctions  proposed  in  the  second  chapter.  According  to 
these  definitions,  it  will  be  noted,  "intermediate"  industrial  schools,  the  college 
preparatory  "high"  school,  the  "manual  training"  school,  and  the  non-tech- 
nical "college"  would  all  be  classified  as  secondary;  their  common  and 
primary  purpose  being  to  recognize  and  provide  for  differences  among  their 
pupils — bringing  these  differences  clearly  to  light,  and  furnishing  the  basis 
for  intelligent  choice  of  careers.  The  "trades"  school,  the  "technical  high" 
school,  the  "professional"  school,  and  the  "university"  would  alike  be  classi- 
fied as  higher  schools,  their  common  function  being  to  provide  special  train- 
ing for  persons  who  have  advanced  to  the  point  of  making  definite  choice  of 
careers  and  who  are  qualified  to  undertake  the  requisite  specialized  training. 

While  it  is  not  expected  that  the  proposed  distinctions  will  modify  estab- 
lished terminology  in  any  radical  way,  it  is  submitted  that  a  scheme  of  educa- 
tion based  upon  some  such  concept  of  function  is  absolutely  essential  to  that 
"equality  of  opportunity"  which  educational  leaders  have  so  enthusiastically 
assumed  to  be  the  foundation  of  democracy.  In  our  devotion  to  equality  oi 
opportunity  as  an  abstraction,  we  have  long  denied  to  our  children  the  reality 
of  opportunity  as  measured  by  varying  needs,  tastes,  and  abilities.  In  our  very 
worthy  insistence  that  every  individual  should  find  an  open  door  to  any  dis- 
tinction that  may  be  within  his  reach,  we  have  held  on  persistently  to  a  system 
of  education  originally  adapted  to  the  requirements  of  the  "learned  "  profession?, 
and  are  just  now  finding  that  such  a  system  is  poorly  adapted  to  the  develop- 
ment of  leaders  in  commercial,  agricultural,  domestic,  and  industrial  pursuits. 

The  present  report  assumes  that  a  democratic  community,  by  its  very 
nature,  must  accept  the  obligation  of  providing  every  boy  and  girl  with  an 
educational  opportunity  that  shall  be  not  merely  free,  but  enlightening;  not 
merely  compulsory,  but  compelling;  not  merely  expansive,  but  vitalizing.  A 
system  of  public  education  affording  such  opportunities  is  absolutely  essential 
to  the  development  of  an  intelligent,  responsive,  and  efficient  citizenship; 


8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

and  this,  in  turn,  furnishes  the  most  secure,  if  not  the  only,  guarantee  of  a 
permanent  and  triumphant  democracy.  It  is  with  the  purpose  of  clarifying 
this  ideal  and  of  hastening  its  realization  that  the  committee  submits  its  findings 
and  constructive  suggestions  as  to  the  place  of  industries  in  public  education. 

JESSE  D.  BURKS, 
Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Municipal  Research,  Philadelphia,  Pa., 

Chairman 


THE   INDUSTRIAL   FACTOR   IN   SOCIAL   PROGRESS 

FRANK   T.    CARLTON,    PROFESSOR   OF   ECONOMICS   AND   HISTORY, 
ALBION   COLLEGE,    ALBION,   MICH. 

Social  progress  is  vitally  and  intimately  connected  with  modifications  in 
the  methods  of  doing  the  world's  work.  As  the  means  employed  by  the  mem- 
bers of  society  in  getting  a  living  are  improved,  institutions,  customs,  and 
social  conventions  undergo  radical  changes.  The  advance  of  a  primitive 
people  from  the  hunting  or  the  pastoral  stage  was  accompanied  by  revolution- 
ary changes  in  the  home,  industrial,  military,  and  social  life.  The  character, 
ideals,  customs,  beliefs,  and  training  of  the  people  suffer  gradual,  but  import- 
ant, transformation  as  an  inevitable  result  of  new  work,  discipline,  and  experi- 
ence which  exert  silent,  but  constant,  pressure  upon  each  and  every  individual 
member  of  the  primitive  tribe  or  horde.  In  the  agricultural  stage  constant 
migration  is  replaced  by  relative  fixity  of  habitation.  Personal  property  which 
was  an  impediment  to  a  pastoral  people  becomes  a  desirable  acquisition  of  the 
agriculturalist.  The  rude  hut  is  built  or  improved.  Property  in  land  begins 
to  emerge,  and  slavery  arises.  New  ideals  and  customs  characteristic  of  an 
agricultural  people  slowly  displace  those  built  up  among  the  hunters  or  the 
herders.  A  multitude  of  social,  political,  military,  commercial,  and  religious 
changes  are  the  natural  and  inevitable  results  of  the  modifications  in  the  indus- 
trial life  of  the  people.  The  progress  from  slavery  to  serfdom  and  from  serf- 
dom to  the  modern  wage  system  was  preceded  by  changes  in  the  density  of 
population  and  in  the  industrial  methods  employed  in  the  community. 

Especially  within  the  last  century  and  a  half  the  intimate  relation  between 
industrial  evolution  and  social  progress  has  been  forced  upon  the  attention 
of  all  students.  The  occidental  peoples  have  been  transformed.  Rural  life, 
isolation,  the  domestic  system  of  industry,  non-specialized  work,  are  replaced 
by  urban  life,  interdependence,  the  factory  system,  and  minute  subdivision  of 
labor.  The  individuals  and  nations  of  the  globe  have  been  brought  closely 
in  touch  with  each  other.  The  fighter  has  been  displaced  by  the  financier, 
status  by  contract,  the  isolated  worker  by  the  trade  unionist,  the  partnership 
by  the  giant  corporation,  the  local  by  the  world  market,  the  stage  coach  by 
the  Pullman,  and  the  sickle  by  the  harvester.  These  kaleidoscopic  changes 
in  industry  are  distinctly  and  inevitably  reflected  into  the  home,  social,  and 
political  life  of  the  community.  New  laws,  new  governmental  forms,  modified 
relations  between  husband  and  wife  and  between  children  and  parents,  new 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  9 

social  imperatives,  and  new  relations  between  different  social  classes  are  the 
visible  fruits  of  industrial  transformation.  If  one  would  gain  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  the  evolution  of  legal  forms  and  ceremonies,  political  institutions, 
social  conventions,  educational  ideals  and  methods,  and  religious  and  ethical 
concepts,  industrial  evolution  must  first  be  carefully  investigated.  Much  of 
the  current  discussion  of  reform  movements  of  various  kinds  is  vitiated  because 
adequate  attention  is  not  paid  to  the  fundamental  forces  which  are  producing 
the  visible  social  changes. 

In  the  study  of  the  political,  social,  educational,  or  ethical  problems  of  today, 
two  important  facts,  often  neglected  by  the  student  who  is  unacquainted  with 
the  history  of  industrial  evolution,  must  be  given  careful  consideration.  In  the 
first  instance,  the  social  environment  including  the  sum-total  of  influences 
which  bear  upon  the  life  of  the  individual  has  been  enlarged.  People,  intelli- 
gence, goods,  now  come  from  or  go  to  distant  parts  of  the  earth  quickly,  regu- 
larly, and  surely.  The  world  of  the  twentieth  century  is  one  vast  neighborhood; 
no  dark,  unknown  continents  remain  upon  the  map.  In  the  second  place, 
specialization  of  industry  has  tended  to  confine  the  life  and  activity  of  the 
vast  majority  of  workers  of  all  grades  within  very  narrow  grooves.  While 
modern  methods  of  communication  and  transportation,  world  markets  and 
the  multiplicity  of  industrial  products  offer  opportunities  to  broaden  the  mental 
horizon  and  tend  to  differentiate  the  demand  of  each  individual  for  necessities, 
comforts,  and  luxuries,  occupations  have  been  specialized  and  subdivided  until 
the  life  of  the  individual  is  cramped.  Earlier  forms  of  industry  gave  the  worker 
a  relatively  broad  outlook,  and  did  not  force  him  into  a  rigid  routine.  Our 
daily  work  and  home  environment  usually  tend  under  modern  conditions  to 
astigmatize  our  view  at  the  time  when  democracy  and  world  unity  should 
thrive.  This  is  the  grim  and  forbidding  paradox  of  modern  industrial  life.1 

Human  society  presents  a  bewildering  panorama  of  rapidly  shifting  scenes. 
Our  problem  is  not  to  prevent  industrial  and  social  change,  but  to  reduce  the 
friction  which  necessarily  accompanies  it  and  to  eliminate  evils  which  are 
connected  with  it.  To  conserve  the  good  and  to  minimize  the  evil  is  the  double 
task  of  society.  The  factory  system,  for  example,  is  an  economical  and  labor- 
saving  device;  but  it  has  certain  undesirable  features  such  as  extreme  speciali- 
zation and  the  employment  of  young  children.  How  can  the  system  be  pre- 
served and  the  danger  reduced  to  a  minimum?  is  our  problem.  It  is  not: 
How  can  the  system  be  abolished  ?  The  task  is  not  the  preservation  of  the 
old  intact;  but  it  is  the  adaptation  of  social,  political,  ethical,  and  educational 
ideals  and  methods  to  the  unique  conditions  produced  by  industrial  advance. 

The  meaning  and  scope  of  such  terms  as  morality,  law,  justice,  liberty, 
patriotism,  and  nation  change  with  the  world's  progress.  In  like  manner  are 
the  meaning  and  scope  of  education  changed.  There  is  no  fixed  and  cosmo- 
politan definition  for  any  one  of  these  terms.  Industrial  organization  quietly 
forces  its  peculiar  impress  upon  each  and  all.  In  order  to  illustrate  this  point 

1  Carlton,  Education  and  Industrial  Evolution,  pp.  47-48. 


10  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

consideration  will  be  given  to  the  influence  of  industrial  change  upon  educa- 
tional evolution.  Education  in  its  broadest  sense  includes  the  totality  of  per- 
sonal experience  which  forms  the  character  and  personality  of  a  particular 
individual  member  of  society.  Education  from  this  viewpoint  is  life,  and  is 
imparted  in  an  informal  way  as  well  as  in  a  formal  manner.  Education  in  the 
narrower  and  technical  sense  is  the  training  which  is  given  by  a  more  or  less 
definitely  articulated  mechanism  usually  denoted  a  school  system.  Or,  in 
other  words,  it  is  training  given  in  a  formal  manner.  Human  progress  causes 
the  transfer  of  certain  forms  of  training  from  the  informal  to  the  formal  group. 
Among  primitive  peoples  education  was  entirely  informal;  but  among  modern 
people  of  the  industrial  type,  the  sphere  of  formal  education  has  seriously 
encroached  upon  the  old  preserves  of  informal  education.  In  the  long  eras 
preceding  modern  times,  education  was  received  in  an  informal  manner  from 
the  father,  the  mother,  and  associates.  The  young  were  apprentices.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  and  down  to  comparatively  recent  times  formal  education 
was  for  the  privileged  few,  and  was  divorced  from  the  ordinary  activities  of 
life.  Even  in  the  United  States  until  recent  decades,  the  functions  of  the  school 
were  not  numerous;  the  chief  work  of  educating  the  youth  devolved  upon  the 
home,  the  shop,  and  the  farm.  Today  the  scene  is  changed.  Slavery,  feudal- 
ism, isolation,  militarism,  aristocracy,  have  been  replaced  by  the  wage  system, 
crowded  populations,  co-operation,  industrialism,  democracy.  The  home 
shorn  of  its  industry  and  its  playground  and  the  shop  of  its  apprenticeship 
system,  have  been  deprived  of  many  educational  functions.  Formal  school 
education  has  suddenly  assumed  a  dignity  and  importance  unknown  to  it  in 
the  past  history  of  mankind. 

/  During  the  last  century  industrial  and  scientific  progress  outran  all  other 
forms  of  development.  An  intricate  problem  of  the  modern  sociologist  is  to 
bring  our  educational,  legal,  economic,  and  social  values  and  ideals  into  har- 
monious relations  with  the  present  industrial  situation.  Legal,  political,  reli- 
gious, or  educational  concepts  formed  when  militarism  was  predominant  are 
useless  or  worse  than  useless  today.  Concepts  formed  when  modern  industry 
was  in  its  infancy,  when  it  was  still  differentiated  into  small  and  isolated  units, 
when  standardization,  specialization,  and  world  markets  were  still  of  the  future, 
do  not  square  with  the  requirements  of  the  modern  integrated  and  interrelated 
industrial  system.  Sociology,  political  science,  and  scientific  education  must 
discard  the  old  and  accept  the  new  in  sa  far  as  progress  makes  such  a  change 
desirable.  Time  is,  indeed,  required  to  remodel  educational,  legal,  political 
and  ethical  systems  so  that  they  will  conform  to  the  demands  of  a  modern 
industrial  society  familiar  with  railways,  telegraphs,  giant  corporations  and 
crowded  cities.  It  is  the  primary  function  of  an  educational  system  to  aid 
in  this  adjustment.  After  an  era  of  extraordinary  economic  progress,  the 
conflict  between  the  inertial  force  of  established  institutions,  customs,  and 
legal  dogmas,  and  the  pressure  of  a  new  social  and  working  environment 
becomes  a  most  striking  sociological  phenomenon.  The  haphazard, 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  n 

patched-up  condition  of  the  American  school  curriculum,  the  contradictory 
decisions  of  the  courts  of  law,  the  widely  differing  codes  of  morality  and  the 
dissimilar  standards  of  artistic  criticism  of  the  present  era  are,  in  no  small 
measure,  due  to  the  antagonism  between  traditional  norms  and  standards 
which  were  conceived  before  the  modern  industrial  era  was  ushered  in,  and 
those  norms  and  standards  which  are  being  developed  under  the  stern  pressure 
of  today's  unique  economic  and  social  relationships.  Both  reformers  and 
reactionists  have  been  too  prone  to  appeal  to  authority,  class  prejudice,  super- 
ficial manifestations  and  vociferous  declamation.  The  resultant  clamor  and 
confusion  have  obscured  the  real  situation,  and  have  retarded  the  calm  and 
deliberate  investigation  of  social  forces. 

The  proper  function  of  an  organized  school  system  as  well  as  of  a  political 
or  a  legal  system,  is  one  which  constantly  changes  to  fit  the  shifting  social  and 
industrial  conditions  of  the  country  and  of  the  epoch.  Not  only  has  the  divi- 
sion of  functions  between  formal  and  informal  education  changed,  but  the 
scope  of  formal  education  has  been  immeasurably  broadened  with  the  advance- 
ment of  mankind  from  primitive  to  civilized  modes  of  living,  working,  and 
associating.  The  work  of  formal  education  has  been  broadened  not  merely 
because  of  the  growing  intricacy  and  complexity  of  human  life  and  industry, 
but  also  because  the  educational  functions  of  other  institutions  such  as  the 
home,  the  shop,  and  the  home  playgrounds  have  diminished  in  importance. 
The  school  has  been  obliged  to  add  duties  which  have  hitherto  been  performed 
by  other  institutions.  The  home  can  no  longer  give  youth  adequate  training 
in  manual  industry.  The  shop  because  of  subdivided  labor  and  speeded-up 
methods  of  modern  industry  offers  inadequate  opportunity  for  the  young 
apprentice.  Society  must  adjust  itself  to  a  more  crowded  environment  and 
to  systematic  and  large-scale  industrial  operations.  In  the  process  of  adjust- 
ment involved  in  passing  from  small-scale  and  unsystematic  to  large-scale 
and  routinized  industry,  social  and  political  institutions  including  the  public- 
school  system  must  undergo  fundamental  modifications.  The  scope  of  formal 
education  can  only  be  definitely  and  scientifically  delimited  by  determining 
(a)  the  totality  or  content  of  education  in  a  given  epoch,  and  (b)  the  portion 
of  this  entire  field  which  can  be  adequately  occupied  by  the  various  institutions 
which  informally  train  the  youth — the  home,  the  shop,  the  store,  the  farm,  the 
home  playground.  If  education  is  to  become  a  social  science,  this  problem 
must  be  patiently  and  systematically  studied.  Cultural  imperatives  and 
psychological  investigations  are  insufficient;  a  science  of  education  rests  on 
the  basis  of  social  and  economic  progress  and  demands.  Until  this  basic 
truth  is  clearly  recognized  no  science  of  education  can  be  formulated. 

The  classic  concept  that  formal  education  consisted  chiefly  in  mere  passive 
reception  of  abstract  ideas,  that  it  was  in  reality  only  a  carefully  worked-out 
system  of  mental  gymnastics,  was  a  view  indigenous  to  an  epoch  before  speciali- 
zation of  industry  and  the  factory  system  became  predominant  in  fixing  the 
methods  of  doing  the  world's  work.  This  idea  was  the  product  of  a  period 


12  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

when  education  was  chiefly  informal,  when  the  home  and  the  small  shop  readily 
provided  the  training  necessary  for  all  except  a  small  number  of  professional 
men.  In  recent  decades  a  more  positive  view  of  the  function  of  an  educa- 
tional system  has  been  generally  accepted.  The  introduction  of  manual  train- 
ing and  laboratory  work  into  the  curriculum  of  the  public  schools  definitely 
marked  an  important  modification  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  education. 
This  social  phenomenon  was  the  visible  and  direct  consequence  of  import- 
ant and  revolutionary  changes  in  American  industrial  methods  and  social 
conditions.  These  strangers  in  the  sphere  of  formal  education  found  the  way 
smoothed  because  of  the  rapid  progress  in  industrial  development  which  was 
produced  by  the  Civil  War.  Trade,  business,  industry,  did  not  bulk  large  in 
the  direct  determination  of  American  educational  methods  and  values  until 
after  the  second  industrial  revolution  which  followed  the  outbreak  of  domestic 
strife. 

The  laboratory  and  the  manual  training  school  are  not  content  with  mere 
passive  receptivity  on  the  part  of  the  student;  but  require  self-activity  and 
constructive  work.  The  introduction  of  these  important  educational  acces- 
sories indicates  clearly  to  the  thinking  student  of  social  science  and  industrial 
evolution  that  the  home,  and  probably  the  shop,  had  at  that  time  lost  many 
of  their  industrial  characteristics.  Division  of  labor  and  large-scale  industry 
were  becoming  predominant  in  the  manufacturing  world.  Important  indus- 
trial innovation  led  directly  to  revolutionary  changes  in  the  political  and 
educational  spheres.  The  old  methods  of  formal  education  were  discarded 
and  the  old  concepts  displaced.  At  the  opening  of  this  epoch  in  the  history 
of  education,  the  school  entered  upon  a  new  period  of  evolution;  it  became 
more  than  a  mere  place  for  the  unwilling  student  to  con  over  the  problems 
presented  in  books.  The  functions  of  a  workshop  and  of  a  laboratory  are 
added  to  the  duties  of  the  traditional  school.  The  work  of  the  school  system 
has  become  something  more  than  that  of  mere  preparation  for  some  one  of 
the  so-called  learned  professions. 

Ethical,  social,  and  educational  values  not  only  change  from  generation  to 
generation  in  response  to  industrial  advance,  but  they  are  different  in  different 
countries  at  any  given  time.  Furthermore,  the  various  classes  in  a  community 
will  not  agree  upon  any  customary  or  new  standard  of  education;  it  must  be 
frankly  admitted  that  even  the  most  broad  generalizations  are  liable  to  meet 
opposition  because  of  fundamental  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  proper 
purpose  of  a  public-school  system.  In  like  manner  many  social  reformers 
meet  serious  opposition  because  of  vital  differences  of  opinion  as  to  the  desira- 
bility of  certain  changes  in  social  relationship. 

Today  one  class  of  men  who  are  insistently  urging  that  the  public  school 
emphasize  industrial  and  trade  education,  do  so  because  they  wish  an  increased 
supply  of  workers  who  are  mere  workers  or  human  automatons.  Many 
influential  employers  in  the  United  States  are  demanding  in  no  uncertain  tones 
that  the  public  schools  be  utilized  to  turn  out  narrowly  trained  industrial 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  SOCIAL  PROGRESS  13 

workers  who  may  become  passive  links  in  the  great  industrial  mechanism  of 
the  present  age.  Systematization  and  specialization  are  the  favorite  watch- 
words of  this  class.  The  application  of  factory  methods  to  the  school  is 
demanded  in  the  name  of  efficiency  and  economy.  Standardization,  not 
individual  treatment,  is  the  ideal  of  the  business  man.  The  manufacturers 
were  not  vitally  interested  in  manual  training  which  was  introduced  as  a  peda- 
gogical necessity  in  order  that  each  and  every  child  might  have  an  opportunity 
to  use  his  hands  in  some  form  of  constructive  work.  In  fact  the  manufacturers, 
because  they  were  taxpayers,  were  inclined  to  oppose  manual  training  as  it 
was  expensive.  The  purely  educational  value  of  this  training  to  the  American 
youth  did  not  appeal  to  them  since  it  did  not  directly  swell  profits  and  increase 
dividends.  But  now,  when  skilled  men  are  an  urgent  necessity,  the  proposi- 
tion is  judged  very  differently;  an  organized  effort  is  being  made  by  captains  of 
industry  to  convert  the  public  schools,  or  certain  departments  of  the  educational 
system,  into  schools  for  apprentices. 

Another  class  of  men  are  standing  for  the  proposition  that  the  public-school 
system  should  train  efficient  workers  who  are  also  thinking  men  and  women 
capable  of  enjoying  art,  literature,  and  leisure,  and  who  will  be  able  to  intelli- 
gently consider  the  political  and  social  problems  which  will  inevitably  arise  in 
the  twentieth  century.  This  class  demands  that  a  well-rounded  develop- 
ment be  given  each  child,  and  that  each  student  be  prepared  for  useful  and 
efficient  work  in  the  community.  These  two  views  are  almost  diametrically 
opposed  to  each  other.  The  standards  utilized  for  the  measurement  of  educa- 
tional values  are  entirely  different.  The  first  class,  however,  is  quite  harmoni- 
ous in  its  agreement  as  to  the  proper  scope  of  educational  work;  the  second 
class  unfortunately  is  not. 

The  progressive  educators  of  the  nations,  those  who  are  attempting  to 
formulate  a  real  science  of  education  which  will  be  a  directive  factor  in  social 
progress,  must  definitely  place  themselves  within  the  second  class.  Industrial 
or  vocational  education  should  become  an  integral  part  of  formal  education 
in  an  epoch  or  a  nation  when  industry  has  become  large-scale  and  subdivided, 
when  the  home  and  the  shop  are  no  longer  adequately  fitted  to  impart  voca- 
tional training.  But  since  large-scale  industry  and  subdivided  labor  are 
necessarily  only  present  in  a  period  of  world  markets  and  world  intercourse, 
vocational  training  must  be  indissolubly  linked  with  other  forms  of  training 
which  will  broaden  the  outlook  of  the  student,  which  will  make  him  a  citizen 
as  well  as  an  efficient  worker  with  hand  or  brain.  The  aim  of  modern  educa- 
tion should  be,  if  the  aim  be  anything  more  than  the  production  of  a  nicely 
articulated  industrial  system,  to  produce  men,  not  machines.  The  school, 
according  to  any  broad  and  reasonable  social  concept  of  its  function,  should 
send  from  its  doors  healthy,  efficient,  and  well-trained  producers  who  possess 
characteristics  which  will  enable  them  to  live  as  well  as  to  make  a  living. 

However,  before  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  a  semblance  of  unanimity 
in  regard  to  sociological  or  educational  values,  some  fairly  definite  standard 


14  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

of  judgment  for  all  social  and  political  institutions  must  be  utilized.  This  is 
a  prime  essential.  Is  there  any  yardstick  for  the  measurement  of  social  values 
which  will  be  acceptable  to  many  different  classes  and  interests  ?  The  cus- 
tomary standard  of  recent  decades  has  been  social  welfare,  the  good  of  society 
considered  as  a  unit.  But  this  popular  criterion  is  open  to  the  serious  indictment 
of  indeterminateness  and  ambiguity;  it  is  too  indefinite  for  practical  use. 
Social  welfare  is  interpreted  in  as  many  different  ways  as  there  are  different 
classes  and  interests  in  the  community;  and  industrial  progress  has  increased 
the  number  of  classes  and  interests,  and  has  brought  different  nationalities 
into  contact  with  each  other.  If  we  are  to  judge  accurately  of  the  influence  of 
industry  upon  social  progress,  of  the  value  of  any  social  or  political  institution, 
or  of  the  importance  of  any  proposed  measure  of  reform,  some  fairly  definite, 
tangible,  and  fundamental  standard  must  first  be  established  which  will 
supersede  that  of  the  social  welfare  or  the  good  of  the  greatest  number.  If 
this  can  be  successfully  accomplished,  all  except  the  most  radical  reformers 
or  revolutionists  on  one  hand,  and  the  most  reactionary  of  the  conservatives 
should  be  able  to  meet  upon  common  ground,  and  to  work  in  practical  harmony 
in  hastening  institutional  reforms  of  various  kinds.  Professor  E.  A.  Ross, 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  has  insisted  that  policies  and  institutions 
should  be  evaluated  according  to  their  significance  in  improving  the  character 
of  the  human  race  or  the  "breed  of  men."  Men  can  fairly  well  agree  upon  a 
definition  of  health,  efficiency,  and  individual  and  social  stamina;  but  not 
upon  that  abstract  concept,  the  good  of  all  or  social  welfare,  i  Few  there  are 
who  will  openly  question  the  desirability  of  any  institution  or  any  measure 
which  will  aid  in  raising  the  standard  of  health,  economic  efficiency,  or  intellec- 
tual acumen.  -Industrial  or  vocational  education,  or  any  other  policy  from 
socialism  to  the  abolition  of  child  labor  in  factories,  should  stand  or  fall  by 
this  definite,  fundamental,  and  universal  test:  Does  or  does  it  not  tend  to  im- 
prove the  health,  vigor,  and  efficiency  of  the  race  ? 

Recent  study  and  investigation  have  shown  us  that  industrial  progress  has 
made  society  rather  than  the  individual  chiefly  responsible  for  the  existence 
of  dislike  of  school  work,  inefficiency,  ill-health,  and  criminality.  The  greatest 
wealth  of  a  modern  nation  is  bound  up  in  its  citizenship;  and  its  citizenship, 
thanks  to  the  "industrial  factor"  in  modern  life,  is  chiefly  a  social  product. 
The  presentation  of  abstract  educational  ideals  and  values  without  due  regard 
for  the  conditions  of  home,  shop,  and  leisure-hour  environment,  is  a  futile 
process.  The  great  problem  of  the  present,  the  one  which  towers  above  all 
others,  is  to  universalize  opportunity  for  decent  health  and  comfortable  living 
not  for  a  few  but  for  all ;  it  is  to  give  to  each  and  every  child  in  this  great  and 
rich  land  of  ours  the  heritage  of  a  child — decent  home  surroundings,  sufficient 
and  proper  food,  opportunity  to  play,  and  a  chance  to  use  hand  and  brain  in 
some  form  of  constructive  work.  This  is  the  social,  political,  and  educational 
problem  of  the  age;  and  the  peculiar  form  in  which  it  is  presented  to  the  pres- 
ent generation  is  due  to  industrial  advance.  The  key  to  its  solution  can  be 


THE  INDUSTRIAL   FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION  15 

found  only  by  him  who  searches  by  way  of  the  path  of  industrial  evolution. 
The  " industrial  factor"  is  the  chief  factor  in  modern  social,  political,  and 
educational  problems;  because  industry  is  the  determining  factor  in  fixing 
the  conditions  of  living,  working,  playing,  associating,  resting. 

If  this  basic  and  tangible  standard  for  measuring  institutional  values  be 
accepted,  education  and  statistics  become  the  trusted  servants  of  sociology — 
the  science  of  social  progress.  The  true  function  of  an  educational  system 
is  now  clearly  seen  to  be  directive;  it  should  give  efficient  aid  in  reducing  the 
friction  inevitable  in  human  society  as  industrial  and  social  changes  occur. 
Education  should  produce  the  adaptable  man  and  the  adaptable  society.  In 
a  modern  industrial  nation  this  concept  of  education  presents  industrial  or 
vocational  education  as  an  integral  and  important  part  of  the  work  of  the  public 
schools.  The  aims,  methods,  and  character  of  formal  education  in  any  epoch 
or  in  any  given  nation  can  only  be  scientifically  and  rationally  determined  by 
resort  to  psychological  investigation  and  to  a  careful  study  of  industrial  evolu- 
tion aided  by  accurate  statistical  information.  The  basic  standard  of  judg- 
ment should  be  its  effect  upon  the  health,  efficiency,  and  intellectual  vigor  of 
the  youth  of  the  nation.  Until  educators  and  school  authorities  are  ready  to 
accept  these  fundamentals,  "groping  in  the  dark"  and  confusion  as  to  essential 
principles  will  continue. 

THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 

ERNEST   N.    HENDER30N,    PROFESSOR   OF   PSYCHOLOGY   AND   EDUCATION, 
ADELPHI   COLLEGE,    BROOKLYN,   NEW    YORK 

According  to  the  plan  of  the  committee  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to 
discuss  uthe  psychological  and  social  need  for  constructive  handwork  and  for 
industries  as  a  'subject'  in  school."  The  aim  will  be  to  analyze  and  to  state 
as  compactly  as  possible  the  various  phases  of  this  need  as  it  displays  itself 
in  the  child  growing  up  thru  the  school  to  maturity.  The  discussion  will 
assume  the  results  of  the  preceding  chapter  as  to  the  importance  of  industries 
as  a  cultural  force  and  will  leave  for  the  succeeding  chapter  the  history  of  the 
theory  of  industrial  education. 

It  seems,  however,  almost  necessary  to  preface  a  discussion  of  the  psycho- 
logical need  for  any  subject  in  the  school  by  a  comparison  of  the  part  psychol- 
ogy has  in  the  past  played  in  the  determination  of  the  work  of  education  with 
the  function  assigned  to  it  by  schoolmen  today.  The  great  educational  reform- 
ers, Rousseau,  Pestalozzi,  Herbart,  and  Froebel  were  convinced  that  the 
fundamental  need  in  education  was  that  it  should  be  based  on  a  sound  psychol- 
ogy. So  thoroly  were  they  possessed  with  this  point  of  view  that  they 
looked  to  psychology  to  determine  not  only  the  method  but  also  the  aim  of 
education.  The  problem  of  the  schoolmaster  they  conceived  to  be  a  develop- 
ment of  that  which  is  potential  within  the  child.  In  this  attitude  they  were 
protesting  against  an  endeavor  to  enforce  upon  him  a  number  of  disagreeable 
tasks  more  or  less  remotely  connected  with  the  business  of  life.  Even  Herbart, 


16  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

with  his  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  the  external  process  of  instruction, 
agreed  that  the  aim  of  education  is  "the  harmonious  development  of  all  the 
powers"  or,  according  to  his  phraseology,  the  development  of  "many-sided 
interest."  Education  according  to  this  view  aims  at  personal  culture,  at  realiz- 
ing the  self,  at  bringing  to  light  the  possibilities  that  God  implanted  in  the 
child;  these  are  all  methods  of  stating  the  purpose  of  education  which  leave 
to  the  psychologist  the  problem  of  determining  its  specific  character.  For  who 
but  he  whose  study  concerns  the  nature  of  the  mind  can  be  expected  to  know 
its  potentialities  ? 

The  theory  that  psychology  should  determine  not  only  the  method  but  also 
the  aim  of  instruction  possessed  the  minds  of  the  earlier  advocates  of  manual 
training  in  the  United  States.  Among  the  important  characteristics  of  the 
child  is  the  fact  that  he  has  a  body  and  is  capable  of  doing  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  things  with  it.  Moreover,  he  is  intensely  interested  in  doing  many  of 
these  things.  For  a  long  time  the  physical  activities  are  rather  more  in  evi- 
dence than  the  mental  ones,  and  all  of  the  instincts  point  toward  them.  Soon 
the  instinct  of  constructiveness  appears,  fashioning  the  form  of  many  games. 
The  teacher,  alert  to  the  potentialities  of  the  child,  marks  the  power  and  the 
instinct  to  use  the  hand,  and  cultivates  it  to  insure  that  perfectly  developed 
man  toward  whom  his  task  is  conceived  to  direct  itself. 

With  the  progress  of  time  the  ideal  of  personal  culture  has  been  largely 
modified  or  replaced  by  that  of  efficiency.  According  to  this  aim  education 
concerns  itself  with  preparing  for  life  rather  than  in  cultivating  all  the  powers 
of  the  child.  The  study  of  what  man  has  to  do,  particularly  the  study  of  the 
social  organization  into  which  he  must  fit,  has  come  to  be  conceived  as  the 
proper  method  of  determining  the  purpose  of  education.  On  this  basis  the 
mere  fact  that  a  child  possesses  a  capacity  is  no  reason  that  the  school  should 
aim  to  develop  it.  On  the  contrary,  many  capacities,  since  they  bear  no  rela- 
tion to  social  life  as  at  present  constituted,  may  well  be  suffered  to  atrophy. 
If  there  is  to  be  education  in  constructive  work,  it  must  be  because  there  is  a 
social  rather  than  a  psychological  need  for  it. 

Such  a  need  is  not,  however,  far  to  seek.  The  growth  of  industry  in  modern 
times  has  been  such  as  to  place  it  at  the  very  front  among  the  interests  of  com- 
munities and  of  nations.  Science,  for  many  ages  merely  the  pursuit  of  a  learned 
leisure,  has  been  harnessed  and  put  to  work.  It  has  concerned  itself  with  the 
tasks  intrusted  to  the  servile  classes.  It  has  relieved  their  labor  of  some  of 
its  severest  strains,  has  elevated  its  character,  making  it  more  intelligent,  and 
has  created  the  need  of  a  broader  intellectual  training  as  a  preparation  for 
nearly  all  the  vocations  than  was  required  a  century  ago.  If  education  is  to 
prepare  for  life,  it  must  begin  by  preparing  to  make  a  livelihood,  and  the 
vocations  of  the  vast  majority  of  those  whom  a  democratic  society  would 
educate  involve  forms  of  handwork  and  industry  in  which  the  school  can  give 
an  extensive  training.  Such  training  is  becoming  increasingly  necessary 
because  of  changes  in  the  industrial  life  that  tend  to  check  or  to  destroy  the 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION  17 

apprentice  system,  and  because  this  life  is  continually  becoming  more  compli- 
cated and  difficult  to  understand  without  specially  directed  study.  Thus  the 
school  is  being  forced  to  take  up  vocational  training  in  a  great  variety  of  occu- 
pations hitherto  prepared  for  adequately  in  other  ways,  for  the  negative  reason 
that  the  other  ways  are  disappearing  and  the  positive  one  that  it  alone  is  capable 
of  furnishing  a  training  suited  to  modern  needs. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that,  from  the  standpoint  of  aiming  to  prepare  its 
pupils  for  efficient  living,  the  modern  school  is  more  and  more  compelled  to 
take  into  account  both  constructive  work  and  the  study  of  industry  as  a  funda- 
mentally important  group  of  subjects.  There  is  a  social  need  for  such  work. 
But  in  the  endeavor  to  fit  it  into  the  course  of  study  difficulties  arise.  Since 
the  work  is  commonly  recognized  as  vocational,  many  parents  see  no  need  of 
it  for  children  who  are  not  expected  to  pursue  the  callings  to  which  it  is  supposed 
to  lead.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  constructive  work,  the  survival  of 
"manual  training."  It  finds  difficulty  in  making  its  way  into  the  earlier  part  of 
the  curriculum,  which  is  necessarily  the  same  for  all.  To  effect  this  entrance 
and  to  maintain  its  ground,  it  has  been  compelled  to  assume  generalized 
forms  that  seem  to  constitute  integral  parts  in  the  culture  of  everyone.  More- 
over, it  has  been  tempted  to  defend  these  forms  not  on  account  of  their  some- 
what remote  utility,  but  rather  on  the  ground  of  the  older  psychological 
arguments  of  discipline  and  all-round  development.  If  these  arguments  are, 
as  seems  inevitable,  to  be  abandoned,  it  is  evident  that  the  elementary  school 
must  find  and  teach  that  phase  of  industrial  life  that  is  suited  to  children  and 
useful  for  all,  and  cease  to  rely  on  the  cultivation  thru  manual  training  of  such 
general  powers  as  accuracy,  moral  rectitude,  co-ordination  of  eye  and  brain 
and  hand,  etc. 

Many  considerations  conspire  to  make  wise  the  postponement  of  the 
more  purely  vocational  part  of  constructive  work  and  the  study  of  industry 
until  at  least  the  dawn  of  adolescence.  It  is  specialized  work  and  to  introduce 
such  training  early  seems  bad  for  at  least  three  reasons,  (i)  It  encourages 
differentiation  before  the  child  has  revealed  himself  to  others  or  has  discovered 
his  own  tastes  and  aptitudes.  (2)  It  initiates  specialization  before  a  child  has 
obtained  the  general  foundations  of  his  culture,  and  while  he  is  still  immature. 
Many  declare  that  this  leads  to  prematuration  and  to  arrested  development. 
(3)  It  tries  to  teach  children  what  can  be  learned  effectively  only  by  older 
persons  and  especially  under  the  pressure  of  practical  need.  This  results 
in  a  waste  of  time. 

The  problem  of  constructive  work  and  of  the  study  of  industry  has  thus 
very  quickly  resolved  itself  into  one  of  determining  on  the  one  hand  the  elements 
of  general  culture  and  on  the  other  those  of  specialization  that  these  subjects 
involve.  This  analysis  completed,  the  two  factors  can  be  assigned  to  different 
parts  of  the  school  program.  The  special  training  can  well  be  postponed 
until  the  work  of  the  elementary  school  has  been  finished.  The  general  cul- 
ture would  need  to  be  properly  correlated  with  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  the 


1 8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

general  arrangement  of  studies  in  the  school.  Herein  the  issue  comes  to  involve 
questions  of  the  psychological  needs  of  childhood. 

Before  taking  up  these  questions,  however,  let  us  note  a  little  more  care- 
fully the  nature  of  that  general  social  need  at  the  behest  of  which  the  studies 
in  question  should  be  introduced  into  the  elementary  school.  It  is  evident 
that  their  general  utility  is  not  identical  with  what  it  has  been  in  the  past. 
With  the  development  of  industry  into  more  and  more  elaborate  organizations 
of  highly  specialized  activities,  the  all-round  manual  skill  so  important  in  both 
men  and  women  a  generation  ago  is  ceasing  to  be  an  especially  valuable  source 
of  efficiency.  On  the  other  hand  economic  interdependence  is  becoming 
greater,  and  it  is  growing  increasingly  important  for  each  to  know  many  things 
in  order  to  keep  his  activities  socially  and  vocationally  in  efficient  co-operation 
with  the  activities  of  others  in  different  walks  of  life.  The  substitution  of 
economic  interdependence  for  economic  independence  has  made  it  necessary 
for  each,  if  he  be  not  to  descend  into  the  position  of  a  mere  tool  of  the  social 
machine  to  be  taken  up  or  laid  aside  at  the  will  of  those  who  use  him,  to  under- 
stand the  relation  of  his  vocation  to  others  well  enough  to  exert  a  controlling 
influence  in  reference  to  its  status  and  its  development.  He  must  be  able  not 
only  to  readjust  himself  to  changes  in  his  vocation,  but  to  assist  in  the  work 
of  readjusting  his  vocation  to  the  varying  conditions  of  community  life.  To 
do  this  he  needs  a  general  knowledge  of  many  vocations.  The  world  of  indus- 
try in  general  becomes  of  importance  to  him  as  well  as  his  own  specialty. 

It  is  to  the  task  of  laying  the  foundations  for  a  general  knowledge  of 
industrial  life  that  the  elementary  school  must  address  itself.  In  this  work 
mere  manual  training  becomes  subordinated  to  the  study  of  industry,  as  a 
method  rather  than  an  aim  of  instruction.  The  group  of  subjects  becomes  an 
introduction  to  a  fundamental  phase  of  economic  life  and  serves  a  utility  quite 
as  definite  as  that  of  instruction  in  the  three  R's  or  in  geography.  Culture  hav- 
ing this  general  aim  may  well  continue  after  the  study  of  specific  vocations  has 
begun.  The  more  effectively  it  is  mastered  the  more  surely,  we  may  suppose, 
will  the  trained  man  be  master  of  his  vocation  rather  than  its  slave. 

Whatever  may  be  the  factors  in  industrial  intelligence,  it  is  evident  that  one 
is  a  knowledge  of  the  general  facts  of  economic  and  industrial  life  such 
as  enables  the  individual  to  see  clearly  the  relation  of  his  own  vocation  thereto. 
Upon  such  knowledge  is  founded  sound  judgment  as  to  the  rights  and  duties 
of  each  craft  as  well  as  of  its  possibilities  and  necessities. 

We  turn  now  to  the  psychological  problem — the  problem  of  adjusting 
constructive  work  and  the  study  of  industry  to  the  nature  of  the  child.  It 
may  be  said  of  both,  and  especially  of  the  former,  that  nature  has  left  the  school- 
master little  to  do.  Children  inherit  so  great  an  interest  in  such  activity 
that  it,  so  far  from  needing  aid  in  order  to  be  made  enjoyable,  constitutes  one 
of  the  most  effective  means  of  arousing  interest  in  any  subject  that  can  be 
taught  thru  its  assistance.  Those  educational  reformers,  who  have  striven 
to  reorganize  education,  making  it  more  interesting  and  more  in  accord  with 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 


the  nature  of  the  child,  have  usually  been  pronounced  advocates  of  construc- 
tive work.  AYe  may  distinguish  between  two  general  uses  for  which  it  has  been 
employed :  (a)  to  give  motive  for  school  work  otherwise  meaningless  and  unin- 
teresting, and  (b)  to  render  more  positive  and  lasting  the. results  of  instruction. 

As  -a  means  of  motivation  constructive  work  possesses  the  following  advan- 
tages: (i)  It  appeals  to  the  love  of  activity,  especially  physical  activity  so 
prominent  in  children.  To  younger  children  the  mere  making  of  things  seems 
worth  while  apart  from  any  uses  to  which  the  product  may  be  put.  (2)  It 
appeals  to  the  primitive  interest  in  the  concrete,  that  which  represents  pro- 
cesses and  results  easily  apprehended  by  both  sight  and  touch  and  the  muscular 
sense.  In  such  material  young  children  are  absorbed,  and  it  is  astonishing 
how  little  general  meaning  or  value  is  necessary  to  insure  their  interest,  pro- 
vided the  material  with  which  they  are  working  be  of  this  tangible  character. 
(3)  Constructive  work  connects  itself  with  occupations  and  products  the 
utility  of  which  is  seen  illustrated  in  the  every-day  life  about  the  child.  Indeed, 
they  are  among  the  first  utilities  to  be  grasped  by  the  child's  mind. 

When  we  turn  to  the  value  of  constructive  work  as  a  means  of  strengthen- 
ing the  results  of  instruction  we  distinguish  two  fundamental  advantages, 
(i)  It  furnishes  one  of  the  easiest  and  most  effective  ways  of  applying  the  prin- 
ciple that  learning  should,  or,  as  the  "functional"  psychology  puts  it,  must  be 
by  doing.  (2)  It  teaches  through  the  application  of  principles  to  a  sort  of 
practice  more  nearly  similar  to  that  of  the  life-situations  in  which  these  prin- 
ciples are  expected  to  function  than  is  that  of  much  of  the  school. 

The  newer  psychology  takes  the  ground  that  we  do  not  attend,  do  not  dis- 
criminate, and  so  are  not  conscious,  except  when  this  is  necessary  to  bring  about 
readjustment  between  reactions  and  stimuli.  Learning  is  always  connected 
with  the  reorganization  of  our  modes  of  behavior.  Apart  from  constructive 
work  the  school  presents  only  one  form  of  physical  activity  of  great  impor- 
tance. This  is  that  of  language,  either  oral  or  written,  and  the  great  aim  of 
such  activity  is  to  come  into  adjustment  with  certain  standard  words,  notably 
those  of  the  teacher.  Now  while  such  activity  must  always  remain  one  of  the 
most  fruitful  occasions  for  learning  inasmuch  as  nothing  can  vie  with  the 
social  situation  in  offering  emergencies  for  readjustment,  it  is  exceedingly 
valuable  not  to  be  limited  in  school  doing  and  learning  to  this  sort  of  thing. 
The  addition  of  the  endeavor  to  manipulate  materials  supplies  a  character- 
istically different  sort  of  emergency.  In  adjusting  himself  to  other  minds  the 
child  is  dealing  with  persons  who  are  continually  by  their  own  efforts  further- 
ing, or  hindering,  his  endeavors.  In  either  event,  the  condition  of  dependence  is 
emphasized.  The  child  is  led  to  consider  success  or  failure  to  be  a  matter  of  the 
point  of  view  of  others;  and  this  point  of  view  may  be  and  all  too  frequently  is 
dependent  upon  circumstance  and  mood,  inaccurate,  uncertain,  transitory,  un- 
just, or  absurdly  compliant  and  easy  rather  than  fixed,  true,  and  inevitable.  The 
methods  of  dealing  with  minds  vary  from  cajolery  and  domineering  to  persua- 
sion and  the  appeal  to  the  sense  of  right.  In  any  case  they  differ  greatly  from 


t 


20  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

the  dealing  with  mere  physical  materials,  where  there  is  one  law,  the  mastery 
of  which  is  the  only  method  of  securing  results,  and  where  the  child  can  have 
no  thought  except  that  of  simple  direct  control.  It  is  an  unquestionable  addi- 
tion to  the  resources  of  the  child  that  he  has  accustomed  himself  to  deal  intel- 
ligently with  physical  materials  as  well  as  with  human  minds. 

Moreover  much  that  is  learned  in  the  school  is  intended  to  be  applied  not 
in  the  control  of  men,  but  in  the  manipulation  of  material.  In  that  event 
constructive  work  in  the  school  offers  the  only  method  by  which  the  principles 
can  there  be  applied  as  they  would  be  in  life.  That  they  should  get  this  sort 
of  school  application  is  fundamentally  important.  Facts  learned  in  order  to 
be  recited  are,  by  a  simple  principle  of  recall,  not  apt  to  be  remembered  where 
the  circumstances  and  the  emergencies  are  so  vastly  different  as  in  the  case  of 
school  questioning  on  the  one  hand  and  a  workshop  on  the  other.  The  more 
nearly  the  school  environment  corresponds  to  that  of  life  in  general,  the  more 
likely  it  is  that  the  ideas  learned  in  the  former  will  be  applied  in  the  latter. 
The  identity  of  principle  is  not  sufficient  with  most  minds  to  overcome  the 
effect  of  diversity  in  all  other  associations,  and  the  mind  recalls  many  things, 
but  not  that  far-away  bit  of  school  learning  which  is  the  one  thing  useful. 
It  may  therefore  safely  be  said  that  whatever  is  to  be  applied  to  problems  in 
construction  should  be  learned  wherever  possible  in  connection  with  such 
problems. 

Very  much  the  same  analysis  that  has  been  made  of  the  psychological 
need  for  constructive  work  in  the  school  applies  to  the  study  of  industry. 
In  fact  it  deals  with  that  phase  of  life  to  aid  in  the  study  of  which  constructive 
work  finds  its  principal  use.  Connecting  itself  with  interest  in  and  imitation 
of  the  simpler  forms  of  adult  life,  it  leads  gradually  to  a  desire  to  participate 
in  the  work  of  the  world.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  constructive  work  and  the 
study  of  industry  in  the  elementary  school  will  ultimately  be  of  such  a  charac- 
ter that  when  the  pupil  reaches  the  age  at  which  the  activities  of  adult  life  make 
their  appeal,  he  will  be  able  tcr  make  a  wise  choice  in  reference  to  them,  and  be 
already  advanced  in  an  appreciable  measure  toward  the  goal  of  his  special 
vocation. 

It  is  especially  in  connection  with  relating  school  work  to  the  realities  of 
life  that  the  study  of  industry  becomes  important.  The  public  in  a  democratic 
and  commercial  and  industrial  community  are  apt  to  find  reality  rather  more 
in  such  work  than  in  science  and  art,  literature  and  philosophy.  The  children 
of  such  a  public  are  prone  to  discover  in  the  study  of  industry  something  that 
connects  the  systematic  and  especially  the  formal  work  of  the  school  with  the 
real  problems  of  life.  Under  these  conditions  the  school  finds  this  study  a 
means  of  putting  motive  into  many  contributory  studies  and  of  securing  such 
a  setting  for  its  teaching  as  will  make  likely  its  application  at  least  to  the  utili- 
tarian pursuits  of  life. 

The  problem  of  motive  becomes  especially  difficult  in  the  later  years  of  the 
elementary  school.  Children  at  this  time  pass,  so  far  as  regards  their  outlook 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION  21 

upon  life,  into  a  distinctly  different  phase  of  development.  We  can  bring  this 
out  by  describing  the  earlier  phases.  The  young  child  is  a  creature  of  impulse 
and  of  imagination,  absorbed  in  doing  or  thinking  that  which  is  immediately 
suggested  to  him.  Reflection  is  gradually  forced  upon  him.  The  period  from 
eight  to  twelve  is  a  critical  age,  an  age  of  rivalry  in  games,  of  the  felt  presence 
of  social  criticism  and  coercion  in  reference  to  all  the  physical  and  mental 
activities  that  the  child  puts  forth.  Under  this  pressure  he  becomes  reflective. 
He  subjects  imagination  to  standards,  the  standards  of  social  acceptability, 
of  truth,  of  propriety.  Such  standards  vary  with  individuals  and  social  groups. 
The  teacher  does  not  always  agree  with  the  parents,  much  less  with  the  man 
on  the  street.  Among  the  children  groups  arise  on  the  basis  of  difference 
in  ideals.  Later  on  the  adolescent  discovers  that  among  these  warring  views 
of  life  he  must  choose  one  for  himself  to  be  his  own.  He  arrives  at  the  age 
of  independence  and  becomes  himself  the  critic,  declaring  his  freedom  from 
coercion. 

It  is  at  this  age  that  the  rate  of  elimination  of  pupils  from  school  becomes 
portentous.  The  reasons  that  cause  children  to  leave  school  are  very  numer- 
ous, but  unquestionably  a  very  large  proportion,  at  least  a  majority,  give  up 
because  they  cannot  feel  that  it  will  repay  the  sacrifice  of  effort  or  expense  or 
both  that  it  involves.  Other  reasons  are  for  the  most  part  contributory.  This 
one  is  fundamental.  There  are  two  classes  of  children  to  whom  school  work 
does  not  seem  worth  while.  One  of  these  consists  of  pupils  who  can  and  do 
get  on  well  in  the  school  but  find  the  activities  on  the  outside  more  interesting 
and  profitable.  The  other  is  composed  of  pupils  who  do  not  prosper  in  the 
school.  Such  children  naturally  grow  discontented.  No  one  can  be  expected 
to  regard  as  worth  while  for  him  that  which  he  is  incapable  of  doing.  More- 
over, in  such  a  competitive  atmosphere  as  a  school  merely  to  pass  means 
practically  to  fail. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  just  as  constructive  work  may  offer  the  motives  of 
activity  and  the  making  of  concrete  things  to  younger  children,  so  to  older 
ones  it,  especially  when  combined  with  a  study  of  industry,  will  seem  worth 
while  to  many  of  both  these  two  classes  of  the  ordinarily  eliminated.  For 
those  who  fail  in  the  older  studies  of  the  school,  the  constructive  work  may 
offer  a  field  for  success.  For  both  classes  it  should  constitute  the  main  part 
of  the  later  school  program.  As  an  integral  part  of  the  preparation  for  life, 
it  deserves  a  place  proportionate  to  the  number  of  those  who  need  such  prepara- 
tion and  the  amount  of  such  preparation  it  is  possible  and  desirable  to  give. 

We  have  reached  again  from  the  standpoint  of  the  study  of  the  developing 
nature  of  the  child  the  issue  of  specialized  vocational  training.  It  is  evident 
that  the  general  training  of  the  earlier  years  of  the  elementary  school  should  be 
what  is  deemed  necessary  to  all  and  what  introduces  those  who  are  to  specialize 
in  some  form  of  industry  to  their  work  of  specific  preparation.  We  have  not, 
however,  as  yet  considered  sufficiently  the  problem  of  the  initial  steps  in  differ- 
entiation or  specialization.  This  problem  is  in  our  democratic  system  one 


22  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

among  the  most  difficult  and  important  that  we  face.  It  is  a  question  whether 
the  problem  of  determining  what  the  vocation  of  the  man  shall  be  is  not  more 
difficult  and  exacting  than  that  of  preparing  him  for  what  has  been  chosen. 
The  European  systems  of  education,  which  have  not  been  burdened  to  such 
an  extent  as  our  own  with  the  ideals  of  a  democracy,  have  found  it  easy  to 
engraft  vocational  instruction  upon  an  elementary  system  intended  only  for 
those  destined  by  birth  to  some  form  of  industry.  In  our  boasted  continuous 
ladder  of  schools,  where  the  elementary  school  leads  into  the  high  school  and 
the  high  school  into  the  college,  the  introduction  of  special  training  in  industry 
has  not  been  so  simple.  It  means  differentiation.  It  has  seemed  like  cutting 
off  from  the  children  who  took  it  the  opportunity  for  such  careers  as 
were  limited  largely  to  those  who  had  completed  the  higher  course.  We  have 
felt  that  education  shall  give  to  all  an  equal  chance  to  attain  any  distinction 
in  life.  Hence  we  have  clung  to  a  system  associated  with  the  training  of  lead- 
ers, even  tho  such  a  system  may  be  poorly  enough  adapted  to  the  education  of 
anyone  else. 

It  is  likely  that  we  shall  find  our  way  out  thru  a  change  in  our  conception  of 
leadership  on  the  one  hand  and  a  discovery  that  our  time-honored  method  of 
training  any  sort  of  a  leader  needs  extensive  modification,  if  not  revolution, 
on  the  other.  It  is  not,  however,  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  discuss  these 
changes.  We  may  confine  ourselves  to  the  crying  need  for  a  system  of  educa- 
tion that  shall  provide  training  adequate,  in  the  first  place,  to  enable  a  fairly 
intelligent  choice  of  a  calling  to  be  made  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  prepare 
for  whatever  may  be  selected.  We  are  fully  alive  to  the  need  for  the  second 
of  these  advances.  It  is  doubtful  whether  our  educational  leaders  have  been 
in  general  adequately  impressed  with  the  need  for  a  system  of  school  work  the 
primary  purpose  of  which  should  be  to  enable  the  pupil  to  find  himself  and  the 
teacher  to  give  to  him  intelligent  advice  on  the  matter. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  development  of  the  child,  the  age  at  which 
this  process  of  experimentation  toward  a  calling  should  be  definitely  initiated 
corresponds  fairly  well  with  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  school  year.  Its 
external  symptom  is  the  high  rate  of  elimination  from  school  at  that  time,  and 
its  internal  sign  is  the  unrest,  the  questioning  of  values,  the  beginnings  of 
" storm  and  stress"  that  characterize  the  commencement  of  the  age  of 
independence,  of  adolescence.  It  would  seem  that  at  this  time  the  secondary 
phase  of  education  should  begin. 

There  has  been  in  our  country  some  trouble  in  defining  just  what  secondary 
education  is.  The  demarcation  between  it  and  the  elementary  school  on  the 
one  hand  and  higher  education  on  the  other  has  been  one  of  years  and  of 
studies  rather  than  of  general  function.  There  has  been  no  clear  reason  except 
custom  and  a  felt  convenience  for  having  secondary  education  begin  and  end 
where  it  does.  It  is  possible,  however,  to  distinguish  three  well-marked  func- 
tions of  education,  which  might  be  assigned  to  elementary,  secondary,  and 
higher  education,  respectively,  without  much  destructive  readjustment  of  our 


THE  INDUSTRIAL  FACTOR  IN  EDUCATION 


23 


present  system.  Elementary  education  concerns  the  essentials  and  the  funda- 
mentals. It  is  the  education  that  precedes  any  attempt  at  differentiation. 
With  the  development  of  the  child  up  into  the  age  where  such  differentiation 
becomes  necessary  an  epoch  of  experimentation  sets  in.  The  main  purpose 
of  the  education  of  this  period  should  be  to  afford  an  adequate  basis  of  experi- 
ence for  the  choice  of  a  specialty  and  to  guide  the  process  of  selection.  Such 
education  we  may  call  secondary.  When  once  it  has  been  determined  as  well 
as  is  practically  possible  what  the  child  should  do,  the  time  for  higher  education, 
that  is,  for  the  special  preparation  for  a  vocation,  has  appeared. 

On  this  plan  we  should  not  have  a  system  in  which,  while  elementary 
education  is  supposed  to  be  for  all,  secondary  education  is  only  for  a  few,  and 
higher  education  for  the  very  few;  but  each  phase  of  the  work  would  find 
representation  in  the  education  of  all  or  most  pupils.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  seventh  grade  the  work  of  experimentation  might  well  begin.  A  large 
number  of  children  have  by  this  time  demonstrated  their  unfitness  for  what 
might  be  called  a  professional  career.  For  them  the  severer  studies,  involving 
the  power  of  mind  to  grasp  and  utilize  the  abstract  ideas  and  processes  involved 
in  mathematics,  science,  language,  etc.,  are  not  profitable.  They  should  be 
given  experimental  work  along  the  line  of  industrial  training  supplemented 
by  concrete  cultural  work  in  literature,  civics,  geography,  and  science,  such  as 
adapts  them  for  the  duties  of  citizenship  and  social  life.  We  may  tentatively 
suggest  that  two  years  of  such  work  would  put  these  children  in  the  position  of 
making  an  intelligent  choice  of  a  vocational  school  in  which  to  complete  their 
education. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  school  year  those  whose  mental  traits  make 
it  desirable  might  enter  schools  where  the  older  type  of  secondary  work  is 
prominent.  But  we  might  expect  that  continually  new  revelations  will  be 
made  in  regard  to  the  talents  and  tastes  of  such  pupils,  and  that  little  by  littie 
those  who  are  unable  to  do  the  work  that  leads  to  the  higher  professions  will 
be  selected  out  to  enter  vocational  schools  that  prepare  primarily  for  inter- 
mediate positions  in  industry,  commerce,  the  civil  service,  etc.  The  period 
of  secondary  education  would,  on  the  theory  proposed,  extend  until  the  choice 
of  a  vocation  has  been  made  on  the  basis  of  sufficient  experience.  The 
knowledge  necessary  to  make  such  a  choice  is  of  necessity  more  extensive,  the 
more  advanced  the  vocation.  Properly  speaking,  the  secondary  school  would 
include  the  present  liberal  college  course. 

The  characteristic  feature  of  the  secondary  school  on  this  theory  is  the 
emphasis  upon  experimentation  and  selection.  In  such  a  school  the  experi- 
mental subject  would  be  especially  prominent.  This  may  be  denned  as  a 
subject  studied  primarily  for  the  sake  of  finding  the  extent  of  its  appeal  to  the 
powers  and  interests  of  the  student.  Experimental  studies  therefore  should 
not  be  elective  but  prescribed,  for  their  function  is  to  compel,  as  it  were,  the 
student  to  explore  the  field  of  human  thought  and  endeavor  adequately  before 
he  is  permitted  to  settle  upon  his  peculiar  specialty. 


24  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

An  adequate  range  of  experimentation  would  involve  the  secondary  but 
by  no  means  unimportant  gain  of  a  broad  outlook  upon  life.  Thus  the  student 
will  be  getting  his  liberal  culture  to  a  great  extent  while  he  is  engaged  in  the 
process  of  selecting  his  vocation.  The  study  of  industry  and  constructive 
work  would  thus  constitute  factors  not  only  in  the  elementary  but  also  in  the 
secondary  education  of  every  student.  All  children  would  have  enough  of 
them  to  know  and  to  do  the  things  that  they  concern  in  so  far  as  they  enter 
into  the  life  of  all.  Every  student  should  have  enough  more  such  study  to  enable 
him,  no  matter  what  his  calling  may  be,  to  understand  and  to  sympathize  and 
co-operate  with  those  whose  life-work  lies  in  these  fields.  The  process  of 
differentiation  initiated  by  the  completion  of  the  elementary  course  would  still 
leave  to  all  some  further  work  along  such  lines  both  for  experimentation  and 
culture.  We  may  assume  that  when  the  experimental  work  has  been  completed 
the  needs  of  culture  will  have  been  in  most  cases  fairly  well  satisfied. 

The  current  usage  assigns  vocational  schools  of  the  trade-school  or  technical- 
school  type  to  secondary  rather  than  to  higher  education,  where  they  would  be 
placed  according  to  the  classification  just  suggested.  This  arises  historically 
because  such  work  is  usually  taken  in  lieu  of  the  secondary  training  of  the  older 
sort.  The  classification  made  in  the  preceding  discussion  aims  to  provide 
a  basis  for  the  determination  of  the  character  and  function  of  constructive 
work  and  the  study  of  industry  as  we  go  from  the  age  of  elementary  education 
on  into  that  of  experimentation  toward  a  vocation  and  further  into  that  of 
specialized  preparation  for  the  one  selected.  In  the  subsequent  chapters  dealing 
with  the  work  of  special  schools  the  classifications  of  current  usage  are  retained, 
but,  the  spirit  of  the  distinctions  that  have  been  made  in  this  chapter  is 
embodied. 

SOME    NOTES     ON     THE    HISTORY    OF    INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

CHARLES    R.    RICHARDS,  DIRECTOR    OF    COOPER    UNION,    NEW    YORK    CITY 

Up  to  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  while  American  communities  were 
struggling  to  afford  an  elementary  education  to  all  the  children  of  the  country, 
the  question  of  training  for  industrial  life  claimed  little  attention  as  an  educa- 
tional problem.  Up  to  the  end  of  this  period  industrial  life  was  for  the  most 
part  a  matter  of  small  units  as  to  organization,  and  of  small  quantities  as  to 
production. 

Industrial  processes  were  far  less  subdivided  than  today  and  apprentice- 
ship, or  some  form  of  training  beginners,  was  far  more  general.  Under  these 
conditions  the  division  of  function  between  school  and  shop  was  clearly  drawn. 
The  school  centered  its  efforts  upon  general  instruction,  and  the  shop  and  fac- 
tory took  care  of  the  training  of  their  own  recruits.  For  his  subject-matter, 
the  schoolman  looked  away  from  the  industries  rather  than  toward  them;  his 
aim  was  naturally  the  organization  of  a  body  of  instruction  of  a  thoroly 
general  character  based  first  of  all  on  the  tools  of  communication,  and  extending 
later  to  the  subjects  of  literature,  history,  and  science. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION   IN   THE   UNITED  STATES  25 

During  the  last  sixty  years  social  and  industrial  conditions  in  the  United 
States  have  undergone  great  changes.  To  these  changes  educational  ideals 
and  methods  have  been  very  slow  in  adjusting  themselves.  The  old  division 
of  function  between  school  and  shop  built  up  a  persisting  conviction  that  an 
inherent  virtue  lies  in  jealously  excluding  everything  pertaining  to  vocation 
from  public-school  instruction,  and  led  educators  stoutly  to  insist  that  all  such 
training  should  be  gained  in  commercial  practice,  or  at  least  outside  of  the 
public  schools. 

During  these  sixty  years  the  course  of  industrial  development  in  this  coun- 
try has  been  marked  by  a  tremendous  increase  in  the  size  of  productive  units 
and  attendant  quantity  production;  by  extraordinary  division  and  subdivision 
of  labor;  by  the  steady  introduction  of  machinery,  and  by  the  proportionate 
lessened  need  of  the  highly  skilled  worker.  At  the  same  time  the  methods  of 
the  industries  have  become  immeasurably  more  dependent  upon  the  principles 
of  exact  science,  and  more  and  more  have  come  to  require  some  need  of  special- 
ized knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  skilled  worker.  This  development,  which 
has  left  but  few  industries  untouched,  has  changed  the  industrial  organization 
from  comparative  homogeneity  to  a  situation  in  which  a  minority  of  workers 
requires  even  greater  skill  and  intelligence  than  formerly,  and  a  majority 
which  need  skill  only  in  a  narrow  range  of  operations. 

fcoincident  with  this  industrial  development,  many  industrial  practices 
have  been  taken  out  of  the  home  life  and  away  from  the  farm  and  the  village 
and  segregated  in  the  factory.  Life  in  the  tenements  of  the  modern  city  affords 
few  of  the  manual  experiences  of  the  earlier  days,  so  that  today  the  average 
boy  in  school  is  very  much  farther  removed  from  a  contact  and  knowledge 
of  industrial  processes  than  was  the  case  sixty  ye'ars  ago. 

This  industrial  expansion  is  confessedly  the  most  important  feature  of 
our  national  economic  life  during  the  last  half-century;  it  is  the  current  that 
is  gradually  changing  us  from  an  agricultural  to  a  manufacturing  people  and 
which  will  in  the  near  future  constitute  the  largest  element  in  our  national 
wealth.  During  this  tremendous  evolution  both  the  public  school  and  the 
industrial  establishment  have  preserved  their  separateness  of  function.  The 
school  has  held  in  the  most  part  to  its  original  attitude  and  the  shop  to  its  early 
methods  of  training.  It  is  only  of  late  years  that  the  steady  pressure  of  eco- 
nomic necessity,  and  the  fact  that  the  old  methods  of  training  for  vocations  have 
become  inadequate,  have  forced  the  realization  that  new  conditions  demand 
new  methods,  and  that  in  the  double  problem  of  general  and  vocational 
education,  once  so  sharply  divided,  the  school  must  assume  an  increasing 
share,  and  on  the  other  hand  that  the  shop  must  borrow  some  of  the  methods 
of  the  school. 

In  spite  of  this  general  lack  of  correlation  between  education  and  industry 
the  school  as  a  matter  of  fact  has  in  a  number  of  ways  reacted  upon 
the  industrial  situation. 

The  first  efforts  to  meet  the  new  conditions  resulted  in  the  establishment 


26  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

of  evening  schools  under  private  auspices.  Cooper  Union  and  the  Mechanics' 
Institute  of  New  York  City,  Franklin  Union  and  the  Spring  Garden  Institute 
of  Philadelphia,  the  Ohio  Mechanics'  Institute  of  Cincinnati,  and  the 
Mechanics'  Institute  of  Richmond,  Va.,  were  nearly  all  founded  or  opened 
evening  classes  during  the  fifties.  The  immediate  demand  upon  such  schools, 
and  the  obviously  important  results  in  affording  ambitious  youth  an  opportunity 
to  obtain  the  technical  equipment  increasingly  demanded  in  their  daily  pur- 
suits, should  apparently  have  resulted  in  the  early  inclusion  of  such  work  in 
public  education.  That  these  results  did  not  follow  was  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  spirit  of  public  education  was  at  that  time  distinctly  alien  to 
such  work.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  our  public  evening- school  work  has  limited 
its  scope  almost  entirely  to  instruction  in  language,  arithmetic,  and  other  gen- 
eral studies,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that  differentiated  and  specialized 
courses  relating  to  industrial  needs  have  been  introduced  in  evening  public 
schools. 

The  next  important  reaction  of  organized  education  upon  the  industrial 
situation  was  that  which  took  place  for  the  most  part  in  the  period  of  mining 
and  railroad  expansion  following  the  Civil  War,  and  which  resulted  in  the 
establishment  of  many  engineering  schools  or  institutes  of  technology.  The 
establishment  of  such  schools  was  at  first  thru  private  foundation  but  the 
passage  of  the  Morrill  Act  in  1862,  by  which  large  land  grants  were  made  to 
the  states  for  the  support  of  instruction  in  the  agricultural  and  mechanical 
arts,  resulted  shortly  in  the  inclusion  of  engineering  departments  in  most  of 
the  western  state  colleges  and  universities. 

The  development  of  this  type  of  institution  has  been  widespread  in  the 
United  States  and  has  produced  an  institution  in  some  respects  superior  to 
anything  of  its  kind  to  be  found  abroad.  The  function  of  such  schools  is,  of 
course,  to  produce  the  engineering  and  technical  expert,  the  men  needed  to 
design  industrial  constructions,  to  devise  technical  processes,  and  to  superin- 
tend industrial  production.  The  object  of  such  schools  is  not  to  train  work- 
men or  even  to  develop  men  of  the  foreman  type. 

The  first  serious  agitation  for  the  inclusion  of  industrial  education  in  the 
public  schools  was,  naturally  enough,  when  the  prevalent  attitude  of  the  school- 
men is  considered,  not  for  real  vocational  training  but  for  the  incluflon  of 
manual  work  in  the  general  course  of  study  as  an  element  of  culture  and  gen- 
eral efficiency.  The  Manual-Training  School  connected  with  Washington 
University,  St.  Louis,  opened  classes  in  1880  and  was  rapidly  followed  by  the 
sstablishment  of  manual-training  high  schools  in  other  cities,  some  under 
private  foundation  but  in  many  cases  organized  as  part  of  the  public-school 
system. 

It  was  not  until  the  years  between  1887  and  1890  that  manual  training 
reached  the  elementary  school.  Starting  with  shopwork  classes  in  the  upper 
grades  it  gradually  made  its  way  downward  thru  the  school  until  it  is  now 
represented  thruout  all  the  grades  in  the  schools  of  many  cities. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN   THE   UNITED  STATES 


27 


The  trend  of  thought  in  the  whole  subject  of  industrial  education  is  well 
indicated  by  the  changing  conception  of  manual  training  as  a  feature  of  school 
work.  In  the  early  agitation  for  the  introduction  of  manual  training  in  the 
eighties,  the  claims  put  forward  for  the  new  subject  as  evidenced  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  National  Education  Association,  and  particularly  in  the 
meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  1888,  were  in  the  main  based 
on  the  conception  of  formal  discipline.  Manual  training  was  entitled  to  a 
place  in  the  school  because  it  exercised  the  observation,  trained  the  reasoning 
powers,  and  strengthened  the  will. 

Altho  it  is  doubtless  true  that  public  support  of  the  new  movement 
was  due  to  a  vague  but  sincere  conviction  that  the  introduction  of  handwork 
stood  for  industrial  training,  educators  as  a  rule  most  carefully  refrained  from 
advancing  a  claim  for  utilitarian  value  in  the  work  and  all  utterances  were 
for  the  most  part  expressed  strictly  in  terms  of  the  prevailing  faculty  psychology. 

The  practice  of  manual  training  in  these  early  days  was  as  barren  as  its 
philosophy.  The  type  exercise  was  the  universal  form  in  which  handwork 
appeared.  Not  until  the  influence  of  Swedish  Sloyd  began  to  make  itself 
felt  in  the  nineties,  with  its  emphasis  on  the  value  of  working  for  a  useful  end, 
did  a  new  idea  enter  into  the  manual-training  conception.  Whatever  may  be 
said  of  the  limitations  of  this  influence,  its  effect  was  at  least  to  make  practice 
more  realistic  and  to  bring  into  methods  of  teaching  the  vital  principle  of  interest. 

About  this  same  period  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  began  to  lose  its 
place  as  the  cornerstone  of  manual-training  philosophy.  By  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century  the  conviction  had  developed  that  such  work  comes  into 
natural  relations  with  the  worker  only  when  he  contributes  something  of  his 
own  thought  to  attain  the  end  placed  before  him. 

Out  of  this  attitude  aided  by  a  deeper  study  of  the  thought  of  such  educa- 
tional leaders  as  Froebel,  Pestalozzi,  and  Herbart,  and  clarified  by  the  emphasis 
of  the  psychologists  on  the  unity  of  the  mental  processes,  developed  the  con- 
ception of  manual  training  as  a  means  of  expression,  a  means  of  expression 
in  terms  of  form,  color,  materials,  muscular  activity,  and  concrete  ends,  a 
means  of  expression  peculiarly  adapted  to  child  life. 

During  the  last  five  or  six  years  the  growing  emphasis  placed  upon  the 
social  meaning  of  education  has  caused  attention  to  be  turned  more  and  more 
to  the  subject-matter  or  content  side  of  manual  training  and  the  conception 
of  manual  training  at  least  in  the  elementary  school  has  come  more  and  more 
to  be  that  of  an  educational  instrument  interpreting  the  fields  of  art  and  indus- 
try in  terms  adapted  to  child  life  and  the  limitations  of  the  school. 

In  the  high  school,  however,  neither  practice  nor  philosophy  has  undergone 
much  change.  Halting  between  the  cultural  and  the  vocational  aim  such 
schools  have  increased  in  numbers  but  still  continue  to  occupy  a  somewhat 
indefinite  educational  status. 

Turning  to  definite  efforts  to  train  workers  for  the  industries  in  public 
schools  we  come  to  the  trade  school,  the  intermediate  industrial  school,  and 


28  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

the  part-time  school.  All  of  these  institutions  are  of  late  development.  It  is 
true  that  the  first  trade  school  in  the  United  States  (the  New  York  Trade 
School)  was  founded  in  1881,  but  in  the  first  twenty  years  after  that  date  only 
two  important  schools  giving  training  in  the  mechanical  trades  were  added, 
viz.,  the  Williamson  Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades  near  Philadelphia 
and  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School  of  New  York.  To  these  might  be 
added  the  Miller  School  of  Albermarle,  Va.,  which  gives  agricultural  and  trade 
instruction  in  the  later  years  of  a  course  of  general  education.  The  existence 
of  each  of  these  schools  is  made  possible  by  extensive  endowments. 

Since  the  year  1901  some  ten  or  twelve  institutions  that  may  strictly  be  called 
trade  schools  have  developed  in  different  parts  of  the  country  under  either 
public  or  private  support  as  well  as  a  number  of  commercially  conducted 
schools  in  the  building  and  other  trades. 

In  1907  the  trade  school  entered  upon  the  stage  of  public  administration. 
In  that  year  the  already  established  Milwaukee  School  of  Trades  was  taken 
over  by  the  city  under  the  terms  of  the  industrial  education  law  passed  by 
the  Wisconsin  legislature.  Since  that  date  public  trade  schools  have  been 
opened  in  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  Portland,  Ore.,  and  Worcester,  Mass. 

Such  schools  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage.  They  face  grave  economic 
problems  that  are  still  unsolved.  First  among  these  is  the  problem  of  support 
presented  to  the  student  worker  during  the  period  of  instruction.  This  diffi- 
culty serves  to  restrict  the  number  that  can  take  advantage  of  such  schools 
to  the  comparative  few.  Training  for  the  skilled  trades  is  in  common  practice 
restricted  to  the  period  above  16  years  of  age  and  as  the  great  bulk  of  the  youth 
who  will  form  the  mechanics  and  industrial  workers  of  the  country  must  of 
necessity  enter  upon  remunerative  work  at  sixteen  or  shortly  after,  the  sacri- 
fices necessary  to  permit  attendance  at  a  trade  school  can  be  expected  only 
in  cases  of  exceptional  foresight  and  home  conditions  above  the  average. 

The  second  aspect  of  the  economic  problem  in  relation  to  such  schools  is 
found  in  the  large  expense  of  administration,  instruction,  materials,  and  physi- 
cal maintenance  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  students  that  can  be  instructed. 

During  the  last  three  or  four  years  a  fundamentally  different  type  of  school 
has  been  much  under  discussion,  viz.,  the  intermediate  industrial,  general 
industrial,  or  preparatory  trade  school  for  boys  and  girls  from  fourteen  to 
sixteen  years  of  age.  Interest  in  this  type  of  school  was  developed  by  the 
report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Educa- 
tion made  in  1906  in  which  much  stress  was  laid  upon  the  lack  of  economic 
progress  experienced  by  children  who  leave  school  before  graduation  and  start 
into  industrial  work  before  the  age  of  sixteen. 

Since  then  the  conviction  has  been  growing,  not  only  that  the  large  number 
of  children  leaving  the  elementary  school  before  graduation  constitutes  a  most 
serious  educational  and  social  problem,  but  that  it  is  a  problem  vitally  related 
to  the  whole  question  of  training  for  the  industries.  The  idea  has  been 
gaining  ground  that  one  of  the  greatest  needs  of  industrial  education  is  to 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        29 

provide  a  school  training  for  those  who  expect  to  enter  the  industries  at  sixteen 
that  will  give  a  sound  basis  of  general  principles  and  a  wide  acquaintance  with 
materials  and  processes  and  so  make  possible  the  development  of  industrial 
intelligence  and  in  consequence  of  industrial  adaptability. 

The  aim  of  such  schools  is  not  a  specialized  trade  training  but  such  instruc- 
tion in  the  processes  fundamental  to  several  trade  groups  that  will  give  an 
advantage  to  the  boy  of  sixteen,  whether  it  be  to  enter  upon  the  work  of  mill 
or  factory  or  to  take  up  the  task  of  learning  a  skilled  trade.  Schools  of  this 
type  have  been  established  as  parts  of  the  public-school  system  in  New  York 
State  at  Rochester,  Albany,  and  New  York  City,  and  New  Bedford,  Mass. 

The  part-time  or  co-operative  school  plan  is  an  attempt  to  combine  prac- 
tical training  in  a  commercial  establishment  with  general  and  technical  instruc- 
tion in  a  school.  This  plan  which  has  been  in  very  successful  operation  for 
some  years  with  the  engineering  students  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  has 
very  lately  been  applied  to  students  of  the  high-school  age. 

The  details  of  such  co-operative  systems  seem  likely  to  vary  considerably 
according  to  whether  the  student  body  comes  originally  from  the  shop  or  from 
the  school.  In  Cincinnati  a  group  of  two  hundred  machine-shop  apprentices 
are  being  given  four  and  one-half  hours  of  instruction  per  week  in  the  public 
schools.  In  Pittsburg  and  Beverly,  Mass.,  on  the  other  hand,  elected  groups 
of  high-school  students  are  given  a  week  in  commercial  establishments  followed 
by  a  week  in  school. 

The  attempts  to  develop  the  part-time  plan  of  instruction  have  only  begun 
to  appear,  but  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  great  economic  and  practical  advan- 
tages of  the  plan  will  result  in  many  further  experiments  in  the  near  future. 

On  the  side  of  state  legislation,  the  increasing  interest  in  industrial  educa- 
tion is  reflected  in  the  passage  of  laws  providing  a  measure  of  state  support 
and  state  direction  for  industrial  and  trade  schools  in  the  states  of  Massachu- 
setts, New  York,  and  Wisconsin. 

This  brief  resume  may  serve  to  indicate  that  many  American  states  and 
communities  have  committed  themselves  to  the  general  principle  of  industrial, 
or  more  broadly  speaking,  vocational  education  as  a  part  of  public  education. 
It  will  serve  to  indicate  also  that  while  certain  types  of  schools  have  proven 
of  unquestioned  value,  others  are  still  in  the  experimental  stage,  and  that 
several  years  of  further  study  and  experience  are  needed  to  demonstrate  fully 
just  what  types  of  industrial  education  are  destined  to  find  a  permanent  place 
in  the  American  public-school  system. 

I.  REPORT  OF  SUB-COMMITTEE  ON  THE  PLACE  OF  INDUS- 
TRIES IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 

Since  a  large  part  of  the  population,  three-fourths  to  nine-tenths,  according 
to  locality,  never  succeeds  in  entering  any  other  than  the  elementary  school, 
three  obligations,  distinct  and  somewhat  conflicting  in  the  demands  which  they 
make  upon  the  curriculum,  would  seem  to  be  placed  upon  this  school: 


30  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

1.  To  develop  as  much  as  possible  of  culture — enrichment  of  life  thru  knowledge 
and  appreciation  of  human  achievement  in  history  and  art. 

2.  To  give  the  best  possible  start  toward  the  life-work  in  which  the  person  will  be 
most  content  and  most  efficient. 

3.  To  furnish  the  best  possible  training  for  citizenship  thru  developing  a  sense  of 
social  obligation  and  by  preparing  for  effective  membership  in  the  various  social  groups. 

To  these  might  be  added  the  aim  of  giving  to  a  minority  the  best  possible 
preparation  for  continuing  their  education  in  higher  schools. 

Even  if  the  whole  effort  of  the  school  were  given  to  one  of  these  aims,  the 
results  obtainable  in  so  short  a  time  and  with  pupils  so  young  would  necessarily 
be  inadequate,  and  the  more  so  since  the  time  must  be  divided,  in  some  degree 
at  least,  between  the  three.  They  must  compete  therefore  for  time  and 
emphasis  in  the  curriculum,  except  in  cases  where  the  material  and  treatment 
deemed  most  appropriate  for  one  is  found  to  be  the  most  appropriate  for  the 
others  also. 

Complete  unification  in  this  fashion  is  hardly  to  be  hoped  for.  It  is, 
however,  the  belief  of  the  committee  not  only  that  the  subject-matter  furnished 
by  the  industrial  arts  holds  a  fundamental  place  in  relation  to  all  three  of  these 
aims,  but  that  this  material,  more  frequently  than  other  subjects  in  the  curri- 
culum offers  opportunities  for  realizing  these  aims  conjointly. 

As  a  cultural  subject,  history,  broadly  defined,  will  doubtless  be  granted 
the  first  place  in  the  curriculum.  But  much  of  the  content  of  history  is  beyond 
the  grasp  of  children.  The  development  of  industry  is  the  most  concrete  and 
the  most  clearly  continuous  aspect  of  history  which  can  be  selected  for  them, 
and  it  is  a  factor  so  fundamental  in  social  progress  that  an  appreciation  of  it 
may  well  be  made  a  first  aim  of  the  school.  Industrial  history  is  also  the 
histoiy  of  science,  and,  if  in  less  degree,  the  history  of  social  organizations. 
It  is,  as  Dewey  says  "no  materialistic  or  merely  utilitarian  affair.  It  is  a 
matter  of  intelligence.  Its  record  is  the  record  of  how  man  learned  to  think, 
to  think  to  some  effect,  to  transform  the  conditions  of  life  so  that  life  itself 
became  a  different  thing."1  Equally  an  element  of  culture,  in  this  industrial 
age,  is  some  understanding  and  sympathetic  appreciation  of  modern  industry, 
its  methods,  achievements,  and  social  significance.  As  culture,  there  must  be 
study  of  the  more  important  industrial  materials  of  the  present  day,  of  the 
processes  thru  which  they  pass;  of  the  machines  and  reagents  utilized;  and 
of  the  two  great  factors  in  the  continuing  progress,  science  and  organization. 

From  the  vocational  point  of  view,  it  is  clear  that  the  industrial  arts  are 
equally  serviceable.  Whether  this  is  to  be  a  major  or  minor  aim  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  the  industrial  opportunities  of  the  average  city  are  such  that  an 
acquaintance  with  the  industries,  in  addition  to  that  acquaintance  with  com- 
merce which  is  already  provided  for,  will  be  the  most  promising  form  of 
vocational  assistance  to  be  offered  to  those  pupils  about  to  enter  gainful  occu- 
pations. This  is  a  subject  which  concerns  mainly  the  later  years  of  the  school, 

1  Elementary  School  Record,  p.  200. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        31 

rather  the  elementary  period  as  a  whole,  and  may  be  most  appropriately 
discussed  as  special  work  for  the  grammar  grades. 

The  bearing  of  the  industrial  arts  upon  citizenship,  and  upon  general 
social  effectiveness  other  than  economic,  is  a  topic  which  leads  somewhat  away 
from  consideration  of  subject-matter  as  such.  Training,  as  well  as  knowledge 
and  information,  is  a  factor  in  the  development  of  a  proper  social  attitude  and 
spirit,  and  tho  modern  psychology  which  has  shown  that  confidence  in  many  of 
its  forms  and  methods  has  been  misplaced,  training  and  discipline  still  remain 
a  fundamental  aim  of  the  school;  the  main  difference  being  that  the  discipline 
is  now  being  brought  as  close  as  possible  to  the  special  field  in  which  it  is 
expected  to  do  duty.  If  general  training  is  a  myth,  particular  types  and  lines 
of  training  are  the  more  essential. 

The  problem  of  training  for  citizenship,  therefore,  becomes  that  of  placing 
the  child  in  an  environment  which  permits  and  demands  the  exercise  of  citizen- 
.ship,  and  the  greater  the  resemblance  between  his  present  and  future  fields  of 
citizenship,  the  more  effective  the  training  secured. 

It  is  generally  recognized  that  the  conventional  school  life,  while  developing 
certain  social  habits  of  importance,  is  yet  a  very  artificial  type  of  social  experi- 
ence, when  compared  with  the  life  outside.  The  argument  here  for  the  study 
of  the  industrial  arts  is  simply  that,  since  it  may  be  carried  on  not  merely  by 
textbook  or  recitation  but  by  actual  reproduction  of  their  processes,  it  may 
furnish  the  pupil  rich  sociai  experience,  more  genuine  and  closer  perhaps  to 
that  of  the  outside  world  than  the  school  can  offer  him  in  any  other  way. 

The  line  between  the  purely  social  and  the  economic  values  in  such  training 
is  naturally  difficult  to  draw.  Such  experiences  in  production  should  not  only 
develop  a  social  adaptability,  thru  the  working  over,  under,  and  with 
others,  but  should  also  habituate  pupils  in  a  degree  to  such  planning  of  work, 
estimating  of  cost,  and  economizing  of  materials,  as  the  outside  world  will 
eventually  require. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  study  of  industrial  arts  here  contemplated  includes 
much  more  than  the  various  lines  of  handwork  which  have  already  found 
lodging  within  the  curriculum.  "Manual  training"  as  its  name  indicates  was 
introduced  as  a  means  of  formal  discipline  and  the  place  which  it  has  made 
for  itself  is  well  apart  from  its  relations  to  the  industrial  life.  Taken  in  hand 
by  students  of  child  psychology,  it  has  been  made  to  appeal  effectively  to 
children's  motor  and  imitative  instincts,  and  to  serve  as  a  means  of  compara- 
tively spontaneous  expression.  It  has  also  been  made  to  furnish  some  concrete 
applications  for  other  school  work  in  mathematics,  science,  or  art.  Its  effec- 
tiveness in  these  respects  probably  justifies  all  the  recognition  which  it  has 
received.  But  such  work  may  be,  and  often  is,  carried  on  successfully  from 
these  points  of  view  with  only  the  most  incidental  reference  to  the  industries  as 
such,  and  without  developing  any  generalizations  regarding  them;  and  so 
much  has  been  made  of  its  value  as  a  method  of  securing  either  manual  skill  or 
free  expression  that  the  question  of  its  subject-matter  has  often  been  ignored. 


32  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


It  is  only  of  late  years  that  the  significance  and  meaning  of  the  industrial 
arts  as  social  subject-matter  has  had  attention,  and  it  is  a  fair  assumption  that 
the  present  curriculum  shows  only  the  beginning  of  the  recognition  which  this 
aspect  is  destined  to  receive.  Following  this  there  may  be  expected  a  propor- 
tionate increase  of  emphasis  upon  actual  constructive  work,  which  will  then 
have  place  in  the  school  life  not  only  as  an  appropriate  means  of  expression 
but  also  as  experience  thru  which  fuller  understanding  of  the  nature  and 
significance  of  the  industries  may  be  gained. 

THE   WORK   OF   THE   PRIMARY    GRADES 

The  younger  the  jjupil,  the  greater,  of  course,  are  the  limitations  under 
which  the  school  wrork  is  conducted  and  the  more  of  attention  to  be  given  to 
method  as  opposed  to  subject-matter.  Without  denying  that  the  later  school 
years  are  concerned  with  the  doctrine  of  interest  and  the  conception  of  educa- 
tion as  expression,  it  is  clear  that  the  earlier  years  are  the  ones  most  directly 
concerned  from  this  point  of  view;  in  the  primary  grades  special  attention  is 
to  be  given  to  the  reactions  which  are  secured  from  children  and  that  these 
depend  largely  upon  the  appeal  which  is  made  to  their  native  instincts 
and  impulses. 

Numerous  studies .  in  the  psychology  of  childhood  have  combined  to 
emphasize  the  significance  of  the  motor  impulses  during  this  period,  and  the 
strength  of  the  interest  in  concrete  materials.  They  need  not  be  quoted  here. 
Our  present  problem  is,  recognizing  fully  the  importance  of  an  education  dur- 
ing these  years  that  shall  "  start  from  the  child,"  to  see  in  what  ways  the  con- 
crete and  motor  work  may  "lead  into  society" — how  to  give  social  content  to 
these  spontaneous  interests  and  activities. 

First  may  be  noted  an  important  element  of  value  available  from  almost 
any  form  of  "manual  training"  quite  apart  from  any  direct  relating  of  this 
to  the  industrial  arts;  i.  e.,  general  acquaintance  with  the  qualities  of  common 
materials,  their  measurement,  and  their  manipulation.  This  will  at  least  have 
value  as  a  foundation  for  the  work  of  the  later  school  years.  However,  if  the 
handwork  be  centered  around  the  fundamental  industries  pupils  may  gain 
two  further  types  of  knowledge  and  experience: 

1.  Knowledge  of  the  nature  and  operations  of  the  industries  upon  which  their  own 
lives  are  most  immediately  dependent. 

2.  Knowledge  of  the  history  of  these  industries  and  the  course  of  their  development. 

The  relative  value  of  these  two  types  of  subject-matter  for  the  primary- 
school  period  is  a  question  much  discussed  and  with  no  general  agreement  as 
yet.  Upon  the  decision  here  depends  the  choice  between  what  may  be  called 
the  neighborhood  approach  and  the  evolutionary  approach  to  industries. 

In  taking  the  neighborhood  approach,  the  pupils  would  be  led  to  the 
observation  and  reproduction  of  the  activities  which  they  see  to  be  meeting 
their  own  immediate  needs,  such  as  those  of  bakery,  truck-farming,  or  house- 
building. Other  industries  having  special  local  prominence  would  come 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        33 

in  even  tho  their  service  were  of  a  less  fundamental  nature.  The  evolu- 
tionary approach,  on  the  other  hand,  would  select  the  most  fundamental 
industries,  and  would  produce  first  the  earliest  and  simplest  processes,  follow- 
ing in  order  the  steps  of  their  development  toward  the  complex  forms  of  the 
present  time. 

Each  plan  has  obvious  advantages.  For  the  neighborhood  approach  it  is 
to  be  said  that — 

1.  It  takes  the  child  exactly  where  it  finds  him,  dealing  with  his  actual  and  immediate 
environment  and  thus  avoiding  the  difficulties  of  creating  an  imaginary  environment  as  a 
theater  for  his  experimental  work. 

2.  In  the  progress  of  the  work  the  reference  is  constantly  to  near-at-hand  processes 
which  are  to  be  seen  in  the  large  by  the  children  individually  and  in  class  excursions. 

3.  This  constant  combining  of.  productive  work  with  observation  will  develop  a  habit 
of  attention  to  the  facts  of  his  environment  and  will  be  the  quickest  and  most  direct  means 
of  increasing  his  appreciation  of  its  activities. 

For  the  evolutionary  approach  it  is  to  be  said  that — 

1.  The  child  meets  the  industry  reduced  to  its  lowest  terms  and  deals  in  the  first  place 
with  its  bare  essentials,  thus  avoiding  the  confusion  likely  to  accompany  study  of  the 
complicated  modern  processes. 

2.  Thus  simplified,  the  reproducing  of  an  industry  demands  reinvention  by  the  pupils 
of  the  successive  improvements  in  the  processes — effort  more  original  and  more  educative 
than  mere  observation  and  imitation  of  processes  seen  around  him. 

3.  It  involves  a  grounding  in  the  elements  of  industrial  history  which  will  not  only 
furnish  an  important  background  for  the  appreciation  of  modern  industry  but  also  serves 
well  as  a  basis  for  the  interpretation  of  other  lines  of  historical  work. 

Most  current  practice  could  be  shown  to  combine  these  two  plans,  at  least 
in  some  measure,  so  that  the  question  is  really  one  of  relative  emphasis.  It  is 
recognized  that  the  very  beginning  must  be  with  the  immediate  environment, 
and  also  that  at  some  point  attention  must  be  given  to  stages  of  development 
which  have  preceded.  Some,  however,  hold  that  the  child  on  leaving  the 
kindergarten  should  be  sufficiently  prepared  for  the  transition  backward; 
others  would  postpone  it  until  three  or  four  years  later.  Some  again  advise 
going  back  to  the  cave-dweller,  and  others  no  farther  than  the  colonial  period. 
All  these  variations  need  to  be  much  more  fully  tested  before  a  course  of  study 
at  all  authoritative  in  these  respects  may  be  offered.  In  Appendix  A  will  be 
found  more  specific  suggestions  for  courses  of  study  realizing  some  of  these 
possibilities. 

THE   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

The  final  aim  in  the  study  of  past  stages  of  industry  is  of  course  to  .prepare 
for  the  fullest  appreciation  of  those  of  the  present.  Children  twelve  to  fourteen 
years  of  age  are  entering  the  stage  of  analytical  and  discriminating  interest 
in  the  social  life  about  them.  The  daily  paper  receives  attention,  and  current 
events  are  discussed.  The  group  game  with  its  demands  for  organization  is 
much  in  evidence.  Free  constructive  work  tends  to  concern  itself  with  articles 
for  actual  use  or  with  the  building  of  mechanical  models  very  closely  imita- 


34  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

tive  of  the  originals,  and  embodying  all  of  their  more  fundamental  mechanical 
problems.  The  impulse  toward  reality  repudiates  the  toy  play  and  doll  play 
of  previous  years  and  also,  in  many  cases,  feeds  the  impulse  to  leave  school  and 
get  to  work.  The  whole  situation  makes  strong  demand  for  an  intensive  study 
of  present  industrial  methods  and  practices. 

This  situation,  in  the  view  of  a  majority  of  the  committee,  demands  sex- 
differentiation  of  work  at  this  point:  for  boys,  toward  the  larger  industries; 
and  for  girls,  toward  the  household  arts.  All  admit  important  social-ethical 
values  in  giving  to  either  sex  a  clear  appreciation  of  the  nature  and  require- 
ments of  the  work  done  by  the  other.  But  now  that  the  work  of  the  average 
pupil  is  beginning  to  have  significances  to  him  thru  a  recognized  relation  to  his 
own  future,  it  becomes  difficult  to  secure  a  feeling  of  reality  in  connection  with 
the  work  of  the  opposite  sex.  Further,  at  least  for  the  large  majority  who  will 
have  no  secondary  education  with  its  opportunity  to  specialize,  it  is  probable 
that  the  time  would  be  better  spent  in  broadening  the  pupils'  view  of  their  own 
distinctive  fields. 

Assuming  this  separation  then,  there  is  still  much  difference  of  opinion 
regarding  the  aim  and  purpose  of  each  type  of  work.  The  question  of  voca- 
tional education  in  the  elementary  school  is  one  much  under  discussion  at  the 
present  time,  and  its  advocacy  is  calling  out  emphatic  protests  against  departure 
from  the  more  general  aims  which  have  until  now  obtained  in  the  elementary 
curriculum. 

Upon  this  question  the  committee  would  submit  the  following  theses: 

1.  Vocational  education,  if  denned  in  the  narrow  sense  as  training  for  efficiency  in 
some  one  specific  occupation  or  industry,  is  not  appropriate  to  the  twelve-  to  fourteen-year 
period.     Given  at  so  early  an  age  it  could  not  avail  either  to  increase  appreciably  the  pupils' 
earning  capacity  or  to  shorten  the  period  of  apprenticeship.     Further  it  would  presuppose 
choice  of  vocation,  which  clearly  should  be  delayed  until  later,  in  as  many  cases  as  possible. 

2.  It  is  entirely  practicable,  within  this  period  and  within  the  limitations  of  the  ele- 
mentary school,  to  give  such  notions  of  leading  industries  as  shall  be  of  large  assistance 
toward  the  proper  selection  of  a  vocation,  or  in  the  case  of  those  destined  for  high  school 
and  college,  toward  the  proper  selection  of  a  higher  school. 

3.  Whether  precedence  be  given  to  this  semi-vocational  aim  or  to  a  more  distinctively 
cultured  one,  i.e.,  general  appreciation  of  the  pupil's  social-industrial  environment,  the 
subject-matter  and  the  methods  demanded  will  be  much  the  same  for  pupils  of  this  age, 
and  the  practical  suggestions  later  to  be  offered  will  be  equally  appropriate. 

The  cultural  values  of  such  work  are  clearly  of  importance  to  all  classes 
of  pupils.  The  boy  destined  for  a  profession  needs  experience  and  knowledge 
that  will  make  him  appreciate  the  factors  of  industrial  life.  The  one  destined 
for  a  highly  specialized  industry  ought  to  have  such  acquaintance  with  other 
types  as  will  show  him  his  own  in  a  proper  perspective.  At  the  same  time,  work 
and  study  that  are  well  adapted  to  give  this  acquaintance  can  hardly  fail  to  be 
of  material  assistance  in  the  choosing  of  an  occupation, 

It  is  doubtful  whether  this  latter  service  and  the  need  for  it  is  fully  appre- 
ciated at  present.  The  situation  may  be  stated  briefly  as  follows:  a  large 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        35 

majority  leave  school  at  about  fourteen  years  of  age,  and  of  these  again  a  large 
majority  are  certainly  to  earn  a  living  with  their  hands.  Ordinarily  the 
school  has  emphasized  the  commercial  side  of  life  in  a  way  to  send  them  out 
with  a  strong  bias  in  its  favor.  Few  have  any  opportunity  even  to  observe  the 
various  types  of  industrial  work;  so  that  the  selection  of  an  industrial  occupa- 
tion, as  shown  by  the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Commission,  is  very  largely 
a  matter  of  chance.  The  desirable  trades  have  a  long  apprenticeship  term, 
are  not  available  before  the  age  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  years  and  have  an  initial 
wage  lower  than  that  of  the  many  juvenile  employments.  When  the  boy 
reaches  this  age  he  is  naturally  reluctant  to  accept  the  reduction  in  wages, 
but  even  if  he  has  the  foresight  to  accept  this  sacrifice,  his  work  of  the  previous 
two  years,  whether  in  office  or  factory,  has  neither  trained  him  for  more  skilled 
work  nor  has  it  in  any  noticeable  degree  clarified  his  ideas  regarding  the  types 
of  work  for  which  he  is  adapted.  His  school  work  in  manual  training,  to  be 
sure,  may  have  given  him  some  notions  about  his  suitability  for  woodworking 
trades,  which  is  valuable  so  far  as  it  goes;  but  these  trades  now  include  no 
more  than  a  tenth  of  the  more  desirable  openings,  and  even  tho  he  has  proved 
an  entire  failure  at  cabinet  work,  he  may  yet  have  in  him  the  making  of  a  good 
plumber,  foundryman,  electrician,  or  even  machinist — the  requirements  of 
each  being  so  fundamentally  different.  Industry  has  now  become  so  varied 
that  success  or  failure  in  any  one  line  offers  little  evidence  regarding  one's 
probable  success  in  others.  Thus  all  the  factors  in  the  situation  conspire  to 
bring  him  into  the  ranks  of  the  casual,  rather  than  of  skilled  labor.  Any 
other  outcome  will  be  due  to  happy  chance  or  to  exceptional  foresight  and 
determination  on  his  own  part  or  that  of  his  parents. 

Three  general  methods  of  attack  are  available  at  this  point: 

1.  That  of  the  intermediate  industrial  school.     This  would  offer  a  curriculum  devoted 
primarily  to  the  industries  and  their  processes,  with  the  academic  work  closely  related  to 
these.     It  would  be  open  to  pupils  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age  and  should  do 
much  toward  making  these  "wasted  years"  subserve  educational  ends. 

2.  A  readjustment  of  the  present  manual-training  courses  in  such  ways  as  to  give 
more  varied  industrial  knowledge  and  industrial  experience. 

3.  That  of  the  special  industrial  class  within  the  elementary  school.      This  would 
require  a  much  larger  time-allowance  for  construction  work;  permitting  a  more  intensive 
industrial  experience  for  the  pupils  specially  in  need  of  such  opportunity.     It  would 
serve  in  short  as  a  substitute  for  the  intermediate  industrial  school  in  localities  where  the 
establishment  of  such  a  school  is  not  found  practicable. 

The  first  of  these  three  topics  is  treated  at  length  in  another  chapter  of  this 
report.  The  second  and  third  are  the  subjects  to  be  considered  respectively 
in  the  two  following  sections. 

INDUSTRIES   IN   THE   MANUAL-TRAINING   COURSE 

The  limitations  of  the  school  present  serious  obstacles  to  this  type  of  work, 
if  undertaken  in  a  broad  way.     Some  discussions  of  the  various  methods  of 
treatment  may,  therefore,  best  precede  that  of  the  appropriate  industries  for 
i 


36  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

study.  Three  general  modes  of  treatment  may  be  distinguished,  the  first  at 
least,  that  of  discussion,  being  always  available.  It  should  of  course  include 
constant  use  of  photographs,  illustrations  in  trade  papers  and  popular  maga- 
zines, trade  catalogs,  etc.  Attention  should  also  be  given  to  its  social  and 
economic  aspects;  wages,  hours,  seasonal  fluctuations,  length  of  apprentice- 
ship, etc.  Much  may  be  accomplished  by  this  means  alone,  assuming 
adequate  preparation  by  the  teacher,  in  bringing  to  the  pupils  a  conception  of 
the  meaning  and  methods  of  a  given  industry. 

The  second  method  is  that  of  the  class  excursion,  nearly  always  avialable 
in  the  case  of  local  industries,  despite  popular  opinion  to  the  contrary.  It  has 
been  the  experience  of  many  that  practically  all  manufacturers  will,  if  t!  e 
matter  is  clearly  set  before  them,  permit  a  properly  conducted  class  excursion 
thru  their  works,  and  that  many  of  them  come  to  take  a  strong  interest  in 
the  plan.  The  value  of  such  an  excursion  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
discussion  and  study  which  has  preceded  it.  If  this  has  been  neglected  the 
pupils  will  often  become  confused  by  the  complexity  of  the  plant  and  the  trip 
degenerate  into  a  mere  vague  gazing  about.  But  properly  prepared  for,  it 
becomes  a  means  of  fixing  in  a  most  vivid  way  the  fundamentals  of  the  process 
and  of  acquiring  a  very  much  more  rounded  and  complete  conception  of  the 
industry  than  could  be  secured  in  any  other  way. 

The  third  mode  of  approach  is  the  reproduction  of  the  industry  or  some 
of  its  more  fundamental  processes  by  the  pupils  themselves.  This,  while  not 
always  practicable  is  a  most  desirable  conclusion  of  the  study.  Actual  feeling 
of  the  materials  will  produce  many  phases  of  appreciation,  which  mere  obser- 
vation fails  to  develop.  It  is  this  treatment  also  which  will  count  for  most  in 
the  discovery  of  special  interests  or  aptitudes  in  individual  pupils,  and  will, 
probably,  have  the  most  direct  influence  upon  their  choice  of  vocation.  It  is 
to  be  assumed  that  the  processes  reproduced  will  be  greatly  simplified,  that  the 
product  will  usually  be  upon  a  much  reduced  scale,  and  that  much  of  the 
workmanship  will  be  crude.  It  is  sufficient  that  the  pupils  view  it  with  a 
sense  of  achievement  and  that  its  processes  reproduce  those  of  the  industry  in 
a  typical  rather  than  a  merely  imitative  way.  In  studying  carpentry,  for 
example,  the  framing  of  a  model  house  from  laths  might  be  called  a  fairly 
typical  treatment,  while  the  making  of  a  cardboard  house  would  be  a  purely 
imitative  treatment,  having  little  value  outside  of  the  primary  grades.  The 
imitation,  in  other  words,  must  be  in  structure  not  simply  in  appearance. 

SELECTION   OF   INDUSTRIES 

It  is  clear  that  of  the  many  industries  which  demand  attention  compara- 
tively few  can  be  treated  in  this  fashion  within  the  available  time,  so  that 
selection  becomes  a  difficult  and  important  matter.  Five  considerations 
which  bear  upon  this  choice  may  be  noted  in  the  order  of  their  importance : 

1.  General  importance  and  extent  of  the  industry. 

2.  Local  importance. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        37 

3.  Dependence  upon  a  distinct  and  comparatively  high  type  of  industrial  ability. 

4.  Desirability  as  an  occupation. 

5.  Practicability  of  reproducing  its  processes  at  school. 

The  relative  importance  of  local  industries  may  be  ascertained  from  the 
U.  S.  Census  Report,  which  shows,  for  each  city,  the  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  various  lines  of  work.  (Vol.  "  Occupations,"  pp.  5501!.). 
The  rank  of  the  more  prominent  ones  is  well  shown  for  the  country  as  a  whole 
in  the  chapter  of  the  present  report  upon  intermediate  industrial  schools 
(pp.  59-80).  The  grouping  of  industries  there  indicated  is  suggestive  for  our 
present  purpose;  but  the  number  of  topics  indicated  is  much  larger  than 
could  be  treated  within  the  elementary  school,  at  least  in  the  intensive  fashion 
which  we  are  at  present  considering.  The  number  of  topics  must  unquestion- 
ably be  reduced  to  six  or  eight.  This  may,  if  necessary,  be  done  by  the  out- 
right selection  of  the  most  prominent  and  the  most  individual,  a  plan  which 
would  not  be  wholly  discredited  by  the  fact  that  these  industries  represent  only 
a  minority  of  the  industrial  occupations.  However,  the  effort  should  be  made 
to  recognize  any  similarities  which  exist  and,  by  the  selection  of  type  industries 
and  of  those  most  divergent  in  nature,  to  make  the  scope  of  the  work  as  broad 
as  possible.  The  classification  just  referred  to  is  suggestive  in  this  regard  but 
still  contains  too  many  topics  for  treatment  by  the  elementary  school. 

The  following  rearrangement  of  groups  may  meet  this  situation  in  a  degree: 

Group  Trade  Number  of  Males  Employed 

Carpentry 600,000 

Woodworking 350,000 


I.  Building  trades. 


II.  Metal  and  machine  trades 


III.  Machine-operating  trades 


Masonry,  stoneworking  and  concrete  construc- 


tion    220,000 

Painting  and  glazing 270,000 

Plumbing  and  pipe-fitting 100,000 

Structural  ironwork 100,000 

Foundry  worK. 100,000 

Machine-shop  work^  280,000 

Blacksmithing 220,000 

Engineers  and  firemen .  400,000 

Weaving  of  textiles 250,000 

Clothing  manufacture. 170,000 

Shoemaking  and  leather  work 200,000 

Other  metal  working 80,000 

IV.  Electrical  work 100,000 

V.  Printing 140,000 

VI.  Agriculture 9,000,000 

VII.  Mining 500,000 

A  classification  so  general  must  be  far  from  satisfactory.  Thus  the  building 
trades  have  very  little  in  common  on  the  purely  technical  side;  plumbing, 
pipe-fitting  and  structural  ironwork  are  intermediate  between  Groups  I  and  II 
and  about  as  appropriate  to  one  as  the  other;  engineers  and  firemen  and  many 
printers  belong  technically  to  Group  III,  etc.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
seem  that  relations  among  the  building  trades  are  so  intimate  that  any  serious 
study  of  one  would  lead  to  measurably  clearer  notions  about  others;  that  the 
structural  iron  worker  is,  on  the  whole,  more  nearly  related  to  the  machinist 


38  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

than  to  the  builder;  and  that  engine  operators  also  require  much  of  the 
machinist's  equipment. 

Upon  the  basis  of  the  five  considerations  already  mentioned,  each  "group" 
would  seem  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  curriculum  and  in  the  order  named, 
barring  special  local  conditions.  Each  should  be  studied  by  means  of  at 
least  one  of  the  subordinate  industries;  more,  if  possible.  Each,  however,  of 
the  first  four  at  least  is  held  to  outrank  any  one  of  the  included  trades;  e.g., 
the  course  of  study  should  not  undertake  a  second  or  third  trade  under  the 
building  or  machine  industries  until  it  has  assigned  some  place  to  electrical 
work. 

The  building-trades  group  being  so  populous,  and  representing  so  dominant 
a  proportion  of  skilled  labor,  seems  clearly  entitled  to  first  place,  and  the  large 
number  of  woodworkers  goes  far  toward  justifying  the  usual  manual-training 
course  from  the  present  point  of  view.  If  but  one  industry  is  to  be  dealt  with, 
clearly  this  is  the  one.  Yet  it  is  doubtless  in  some  senses  a  waning  industry 
and  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  the  approaching  census  reduces  its  pre- 
ponderance materially. 

In  Group  II  the  machinist  certainly  has  first  place,  not  because  of  the 
plurality  indicated,  but  because  his  work  and  his  knowledge  are  fundamental 
to  so  many  other  industries.  Technically  he  is  a  builder  of  machines;  but 
this  involves  some  ability  as  a  metal  worker  combined  with  some  understanding 
of  machinery  in  general,  its  adjustment,  alteration,  and  repair.  Men  with  such 
equipment,  whether  nominally  machinists  or  not,  are  to  be  found  in  any  type 
of  industrial  establishment  and  are  the  ones  whose  special  talents  gain  the 
promptest  recognition  and  advancement.  Two  aims  should  characterize  the 
school  work  at  this  point:  (i)  to  give  the  general  notions  of  the  processes 
in  the  building  of  machinery;  (2)  to  study  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  con- 
struct various  mechanisms  with  a  view  to  the  development  of  mechanical 
ingenuity.  The  taking-apart  and  reassembling  of  any  mechanism,  the  con- 
struction of  any  mechanical  project  or  moving  toy  and  experimenting  with 
various  adjustments  to  secure  its  proper  operation — all  of  these  may  be 
expected  to  increase  the  pupil's  understanding  of  machinery  and  to  disclose 
and  develop  any  latent  mechanical  talent  which  he  may  possess. 

Group  III,  that  of  machine-handling,  is  seen  to  consist  largely  of  what  may 
be  called  semi-skilled  industries,  which  command  a  wage  distinctly  better  than 
that  of  the  common  laborer  but  below  that  of  the  journeyman  mechanic. 
The  ability  here  required  is  ordinarily  that  of  deftness  or  speed  in  the  operat- 
ing of  a  machine  rather  than  any  thoro  understanding  of  the  machine  itself. 

The  question  of  what  special  types  of  education,  if  any,  will  be  advantageous 
to  the  very  large  number  of  pupils  who  are  destined  for  this  group,  is  doubtless 
the  most  difficult  one  of  all. 

What  may  be  done  for  the  person  who  is  confined  to  a  single  process  in  an 
industry  or  a  small  part  of  a  process  ?  Clearly  a  perspective  view  of  the  indus- 
try, from  the  sources  of  its  raw  materials  to  the  social  functions  of  its  product, 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        39 

is  one  of  the  first  services  required,  and  this  should  doubtless  be  the  foremost 
aim  of  any  attempt  to  deal  with  these  industries.  Further,  any  work  leading 
to  the  better  understanding  of  machinery,  such  as  has  been  suggested  for  the 
previous  group,  will  have  value  from  two  viewpoints:  (i)  It  will  have  a  selec- 
tive influence,  encouraging  the  more  capable  operatives  to  rise  above  the  rank 
of  operative.  (2)  For  the  operatives  who  are  to  remain  such,  this  would  hardly 
have  the  same  practical  value;  but  the  ability  of  these  to  understand  and 
appreciate  the  mechanism  of  their  machines  ought  surely  to  mean  a  much 
more  intelligent  interest  in  their  work  and  much  more  satisfaction  in  its  con- 
duct. It  would  appear  then  that  the  treatment  of  this  group  of  industries 
must  be  very  largely  cultural  in  its  purpose. 

The  electrical  industries  while  employing  fewer  men  are  considered  as  a 
separate  group  for  several  reasons.  Electricity  is  a  factor  which  no  cultural 
survey  of  modern  industry,  no  matter  how  elementary,  can  possibly  ignore, 
and  on  the  vocational  side  two  special  factors  require  its  emphasis  :  (a)  It  is 
constantly  becoming  a  more  significant  factor  in  the  fields  of  the  leading 
industries,  so  that  some  acquaintance  with  its  theory  and  applications  is  of 
practical  value  to  many  times  the  number  listed  in  the  census  as  regular  elec- 
tricians, (b)  It  demands  a  unique  type  of  ability  both  mental  and  manual — 
an  ability  frequently  discovered  in  pupils  whose  progress  in  many  other  liaes 
is  unsatisfactory.  This  is  one  of  the  industries  in  which  study  by  actual  repro- 
duction is  most  available,  since  the  construction,  alteration,  and  operation  of 
simple  bells,  motors,  telegraph  sounders,  etc.,  is  fully  practicable  at  small 
expense  in  the  usual  school  shop,  and  is  a  type  of  work  well  calculated  to 
develop  a  general  conception  of  the  nature  and  application  of  electricity. 

Brief  reference  may  be  made  to  the  remaining  groups  bracketed  above 
because  of  special  difficulties  involved  in  centering  the  school  constructive 
work  upon  them. 

Printing,  like  electrical  work,  is  classed  as  a  group  rather  than  as  a  trade 
because  of  its  marked  individuality  and  the  fact  that  it  has  so  little  in  common 
with  other  industries.  It  is  of  the  last  three  the  most  feasible  in  the  school, 
altho  requiring  special  equipment  and  also,  possibly,  smaller  classes,  tho 
further  experiment  is  necessary  to  prove  this  fully.  The  school  can  of  course 
make  use  of  a  great  variety  of  printed  matter  and  this  is  apparently  the  one 
point  at  which  industrial  work  may  be  carried  on  in  continuous  service  of  the 
school  as  a  whole,  and  one  which  should  therefore  have  special  value  as  a 
socializing  influence.  That  it  could  be  in  so  large  a  sense  a  regular  industrial 
enterprise,  conducted  by  the  school,  should  give  a  peculiar  sense  of  reality  to  the 
whole  process  and  particularly  to  such  considerations  of  cost  of  supplies  and 
economy  of  materials,  which  in  the  usual  types  of  constructive  work  must  be 
developed  in  a  somewhat  artificial  way  if  at  more  detail. 

That  agriculture  occupies  nine  million  men  shows  in  how  great  a  degree 
this  is  still  a  farming  nation.  Unquestionably  the  city  school  as  well  as  the 
country  school  must  find  means  for  its  presentation,  but  it  is  usually  considered 


40  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

apart  from  the  lines  of  industry  already  discussed  and  space  does  not  permit 
its  detailed  consideration  here. 

Mining  is  also  seen  to  be  of  high  rank  numerically  and  it  is  in  many  aspects 
worthy  of  a  place  as  a  skilled  industry,  but  it  is  so  highly  localized  and  so 
difficult  of  reproduction  in  the  school  in  any  typical  aspects  that  it  would  not 
seem  available  for  treatment  except  in  the  most  general  way. 

In  the  treatment  of  any  of  these  industries  it  is  clear  that  the  school  work 
should  aim  consciously  at  developing  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  industry  as 
a  whole,  and  some  appreciation  of  the  value  of  this  may  be  counted  on  from 
the  pupils,  tho  continuous  attention  to  these  aspects  cannot  be  expected  from 
children  of  this  age.  Almost  any  manipulation  of  the  materials  involved  will 
be  of  assistance  here,  but  very  few  industries  have  sufficient  fascination  in  their 
mere  processes  to  secure  the  most  desirable  quality  of  attention  and  interest 
from  the  pupils.  This  is  ordinarily  dependent  upon  the  securing  of  a  product 
embodying  in  a  vivid,  concrete  way  the  knowledge  and  technique  that  has 
been  acquired;  such  product  to  be  a  unity,  a  project  complete  in  itself,  not 
simply  a  series  of  exercises  or  experiments.  Thus  in  the  case  of  carpentry, 
the  framing  of  a  model  house  would  be  appropriate;  in  the  case  of  concrete 
construction  the  erection  of  a  model  building  or  possibly  the  laying  of  some 
sidewalk  on  the  school  grounds.  If  in  addition  the  product  is  usable  as  a  toy 
or  otherwise,  so  much  the  better;  e.  g.,  in  studying  the  strength  of  materials 
a  bridge  would  be  good  but  a  multiplane  kite  possibly  better.  Similarly  in 
electricity  a  motor  would  be  good,  but  an  electric  motor  boat  better. 

This  whole  field,  however,  is  one  in  which  the  school  is  just  beginning  to 
feel  its  way,  and  until  the  results  of  much  further  experimentation  are  available, 
details  of  method  may  be  suggested  only  in  the  most  tentative  way.  The 
one  certainty  is  that  the  content  of  the  industrial  arts  is  such  as  to  demand  a 
much  more  serious  exploitation  on  the  part  of  the  elementary  school,  and 
that  fuller  knowledge  of  this  content  will  be  an  important  influence  toward 
the  better  after- adjustment  of  pupils  to  their  industrial  environment. 

(Appendix  B  contains  more  detailed  suggestions  regarding  work  of  this  type.) 

SPECIAL  INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES 

However,  even  with  the  fullest  development  of  the  industrial  element 
in  the  regular  course,  the  educational  needs  of  a  large  percentage  of  the  pupils 
will  not  be  met.  This  is  especially  true  in  the  cases  of  those  pupils  who  do 
not  readily  respond  to  our  usual  methods  and  who,  therefore,  do  not  progress 
regularly  from  grade  to  grade. 

These  pupils  leaving  school  at  fourteen,  especially  when  they  leave  -from 
the  lower  grades,  are  unable  to  secure  occupation  which  promises  regular  and 
satisfactory  advancement.  These  workers,  entering  as  they  do  into  unskilled 
or  into  highly  specialized  industries  where  the  subdivision  of  processes  is 
minute,  require  for  their  own  well-being  and  for  the  benefit  of  their  employers 
a  general  rather  than  a  specific  industrial  training. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        41 

For  these  reasons  it  is  extremely  desirable  to  introduce  special  industrial 
classes  in  connection  with  the  regular  work  of  the  last  two  or  three  years  of  the 
elementary  school,  that  will  appeal  directly  to  the  above  groups  of  children 
and  occupy  four  or  five  hours  a  week. 

In  order  to  make  the  best  adjustment  and  to  secure  the  best  results  from 
such  classes,  it  will  be  necessary  to  institute  a  variety  of  experiments — experi- 
ments that  may  be  as  varied  as  the  size  of  the  school  system  permits.  These 
experiments  should  be  governed  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  varying  indus- 
trial conditions  prevailing  in  the  different  localities  and  should  connect  with 
the  other  work  of  the  school  at  as  many  different  points  as  possible. 

Such  special  classes  give  promise  of  doing  much  to  solve  the  problem  of 
the  backward  or  non-progressive  pupil,  the  problem  which  conscientious  and 
thoughtful  teachers  have  ever  taken  seriously  to  heart. 

Another  type  of  special  class  might  deal  even  more  specifically  with 
individual  pupils  just  on  the  point  of  leaving  school,  occupying  perhaps  two 
or  more  of  the  afternoon  school  sessions  per  week.  Pupils  taking  this  course 
would  continue  for  the  remainder  of  the  time  in  the  regular  school  classes,  the 
work  there  being  so  arranged  that  they  would  drop  certain  subjects  entirely 
rather  than  parts  of  different  subjects.  The  more  fundamental  subjects 
would  naturally  be  confined  to  the  forenoon  and  in  these  no  distinction  between 
regular  and  special  pupils  would  be  required. 

Admission  to  such  a  class  might  be  limited  to  pupils  fourteen  years  of  age, 
or  those  on  whom  the  school  has  no  further  legal  hold.  It  would  obviously 
interfere  with  entrance  to  high  school,  and  should  presumably  be  placed  before 
the  pupils  as  an  inadequate  substitute  for  a  secondary  course,  none  being 
admitted  except  upon  evidence  of  inability  to  afford  or  profit  by  the  conven- 
tional high-school  course  and  upon  written  consent  of  parents. 

The  work  of  such  a  class  might  deal  with  a  small  or  a  larger  number  of 
industries  according  to  local  conditions  and  requirements.  In  either  case, 
however,  with  such  a  time-allowance  it  could  clearly  be  much  more  thoro, 
systematic  and  technical  than  that  of  the  regular  manual-training  courses.  It 
might  well  be  expected  not  only  to  give  a  semi- vocational  preparation  to  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  more  mechanically  minded  boys  but  also  to  lengthen 
materially  the  terms  of  their  school  life — in  which  case  both  the  industrial  and 
the  academic  work  secured  would  be  for  the  pupil  just  so  much  clear  gain. 



FURTHER  SUGGESTIONS  REGARDING  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

It  has  not  been  found  possible  to  offer  a  complete  course  of  study  represent- 
ing any  phase  of  the  work  which  has  been  discussed.  The  following  pages 
therefore  deal  with  isolated  topics  only  with  a  view  of  illustrating  certain  types 
of  treatment  available  for  a  study  of  the  industries. 

In  order  to  make  this  material  as  practical  as  possible  in  its  suggestion,  it 


42  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

is  confined  for  the  most  part  to  an  account  of  work  which  has  had  actual  trial 
within  the  schoolroom.  As  has  been  suggested  earlier,  there  are  various 
lines  of  constructive  work  which  deserve  place  within  the  school  from  the  view- 
point of  the  child's  immediate  interests  and  requirements,  but  are  without 
direct  bearing  upon  the  industries.  These  are  omitted  here  as  lying  outside 
the  scope  of  the  present  discussion. 

A.     STUDIES  OF  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES 

I.      THE    EVOLUTIONARY    APPROACH 

First  Example — Study  of  the  Textile  Industry1 
(Second  Year,  Horace  Mann  School,  New  York) 

The  work  centers  about  the  main  lines  of  thought  during  the  year,  in  connection  with  . 
the  study  of  social  occupations  as  they  are  found  among  the  pastoral  and  early  agricultural 
peoples.  As  these  types  represent  very  simple  conditions,  the  activities  are  still  largely 
those  involved  in  the  securing  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The  study  of  the  first  grade 
forms  a  basis  for  comparison,  and  aids  in  the  solution  of  similar  problems  under  new  con- 
ditions. 

In  the  pastoral  stage  the  domestication  of  animals,  especially  sheep,  determined  very 
largely  the  life  and  occupations  of  the  people,  and  greatly  enriched  their  sources  of  supply, 
particularly  that  of  clothing.  The  child  brings  with  him  into  the  second  grade  a  vivid 
picture  of  the  dress  of  the  primitive  hunter.  He  has  learned  that  he  used  woven  grasses, 
leaves,  and  skins  for  clothing.  He  remembers  that  the  skin  garments  were  very  hard  to 
prepare,  and  that  the  cloth  of  woven  grass  and  rushes  was  not  strong  nor  soft,  nor  close 
and  fine  like  his  own  clothing. 

The  children  are  now  given  pieces  of  silk,  cotton,  and  woolen  materials,  and  some 
raw  wool  from  a  fleece.  By  the  sense  of  touch  and  examination  of  the  raveled  threads  they 
decide  upon  the  woolen  cloth  as  being  of  the  same  material  as  the  fleece.  They  are  asked 
to  find  out  which  articles  of  their  clothing  are  made  of  wool,  at  what  season  we  wear  wool, 
and  to  name  other  things  made  of  wool.  Having  traced  the  woolen  materials  back  to  the 
wool,  they  are  ready  for  the  study  of  the  sheep.  They  are  then  taken  to  Central  Park, 
where  they  see  the  sheep  in  flocks.  They  notice  the  shape  of  the  body,  head,  legs,  and  tail; 
his  manner  of  moving  and  feeding,  and  his  way  of  giving  alarm.  Memory  sketches  are 
made  on  the  return  to  the  classroom.  In  the  lesson  following,  a  fleece  is  shown  and  by 
examination  the  children  notice  where  the  wool  is  thickest  and  softest,  where  finest,  and 
where  coarsest.  Different  methods  of  shearing  are  discussed,  and  the  old  way  compared 
with  the  new.  Pictures  help  very  much.  Each  child  cuts  a  handful  of  wool  from  the 
fleece  and  examines  it  very  carefully.  One  child  discovers  that  it  feels  oily,  another  that  it 
is  not  white,  another  that  it  is  full  of  burrs  and  sticks.  It  is  decided  that  it  must  be  cleaned 
before  it  will  be  ready  for  spinning.  They  try  cleaning  by  hand,  but  this  method  is  decided 
to  be  too  slow.  Some  one  suggests  washing.  While  talking,  some  of  the  children  try  to 
twist  the  fibers  with  their  fingers  and  usually  succeed  in  producing  some  short,  uneven 
threads.  This  gives  them  a  chance  to  imagine  how  the  pastoral  women  must  have  started 
their  spinning.  Then  they  try  to  use  their  pencils  to  wind  the  thread,  and  suggest  that 
sticks  of  some  kind  might  have  been  used  long  ago  for  this.  Gradually  by  getting  used  to 
the  motion  they  are  able  to  keep  the  pencil  with  the  threads  whirling,  and  the  idea  of  the 
spindle  is  evolved.  These  are  made  of  wood  by  the  children  and  they  spin  a  short  length 
of  the  coarse  wool. 

As  they  decide  to  wash  the  wool,  tubs  of  warm  water  and  soap  are  brought  to  the 
classroom.  They  discover  that  much  energy  makes  the  wool  mat  together.  They  also 
discover  that  the  oily  feeling  is  gone,  and  that  it  does  not  spin  as  easily.  The  question  now 

1  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  VII,  pp.  344-47. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        43 

arises  as  to  the  best  manner  of  getting  the  matted  condition  smoothed  out,  and  finally  comb- 
ing is  suggested.  It  is  found  that  combing  with  the  fingers  is  not  a  success,  and  that  even 
the  ordinary  comb  does  not  seem  strong  enough,  so  it  is  decided  to  make  special  carding 
combs.  These  are  made  of  wood  ^"Xg".  The  children  use  rulers,  knives,  hammers, 
and  nails  in  construction.  Four  rows  of  nails  about  }"  apart  complete  the  comb. 

The  children  tried  a  few  experiments  with  dyeing  in  their  Indian  work,  so  they  are 
asked  to  suggest  vegetables,  berries,  or  roots  that  might  give  color  to  the  wool.  Such 
things  as  grapes,  tomatoes,  beets,  onions,  squash,  poke  berries,  and  blue-berries  are 
usually  tried  by  the  children.  They  cook  the  vegetables  and  crush  the  berries,  and  dip 
the  wool  only  to  find  that  most  of  the  colors  will  not  hold.  Out  of  all  the  materials  tried 
they  find  only  a  few,  such  as  grape  skins  and  tomatoes,  that  are  satisfactory  in  giving  a 
fairly  good  and  fast  color. 

In  the  first  grade  the  children  had  woven  grasses  on  a  rectangular  frame  making  use 
only  of  their  fingers.  They  now  construct  a  somewhat  similar  frame  and  study  various 
methods  of  securing  the  finer  woven  warp  thread  to  the  two  end-pieces.  For  the  woof 
they  use  a  manufactured  yarn  of  different  colors,  blue,  brown,  black,  and  white.  With 
this  fine  material  the  great  length  to  be  pulled  thru  each  time  proves  very  awkward, 
and  discussion  of  some  way  to  relieve  the  difficulty  develops  the  idea  of  winding  the  eutij  e 
weaving  thread  on  a  small  stick,  thus  producing  a  primitive  shuttle.  After  some  further 
work  the  amount  of  time  arid  labor  required  to  raise  and  lower  the  individual  warp  threads 
becomes  very  evident,  and  the  advantage  of  some  means  by  which  a  whole  set  of  alternate 
threads  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  one  time  is  apparent.  After  much  study  and  after 
some  suggestions  and  experiments  several  forms  of  string  heddles  are  developed  and  put 
into  use. 

It  is  decided  that  the  rugs  to  be  made  will  be  more  attractive  if  several  colors  are  used, 
and  a  study  ensues  as  to  the  easiest  and  best  way  to  arrange  the  different  colors.  Stripes 
are  decided  upon,  and  a  few  suggestions  are  placed  on  the  black-board,  discussed,  and 
compared.  After  this  each  child  dei.  ides  upon  his  color  scheme,  and  draws  a  pattern  for 
his  rug,  which  he  carefully  follows  in  the  weaving.  As  a  result  there  is  much  originality 
displayed,  and  a  great  variety  in  the  productions  made.  This  work  occupies  the  principal 
part  of  the  first  half-year,  and  in  connection  with  it  visits  are  made  to  the  Natural  History 
Museum,  and  to  the  Department  of  Domestic  Art  in  Teachers  College,  where  illustrations 
and  demonstrations  of  the  different  processes  are  seen.  The  modern  methods  of  carrying 
on  these  same  processes  are  also  touched  upon.  As  there  are  no  factories  in  the  imme- 
diate neighborhood  which  can  be  visited,  most  of  this  work  is  illustrated  by  means  of 
pictures  enlightened  by  the  experiences  of  children  and  teacher. 

Second  Example — Candle  Making  in  the  Third  Year 
(Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago) 

An  illustration  of  how  the  study  of  an  industry  may  be  combined  with  the  meeting 
of  a  present  social  need — in  this  case  the  making  of  candles  for  a  Christmas  tree. 

The  first  thing  to  do  was  to  choose  the  material  of  which  the  candles  were  to  be  made. 
Wax,  paraffin,  spermaceti,  stearin,  and  tallow  were  shown  to  the  children.  Spermaceti 
and  stearin  were  excluded  on  account  of  expense.  To  help  in  making  a  choice  of  paraffin, 
wax,  or  tallow,  candles  of  each  of  these  materials  were  burned.  The  paraffin  flame  was 
the  largest,  and  that  material  was  the  one  chosen. 

How  to  make  the  candles  was  the  next  question.  One  of  the  boys  said  his  father  had 
read  to  him  of  boys  making  candles  in  bamboo  canes.  This  idea  was  quickly  taken  up  by 
the  children  and  modified  in  various  ways. 

The  child-en  wore  asked  to  work  out  their  p'ans  at  home.  The  result  was  candles 
made  in  five  different  ways. 

One  was  made  in  a  paper  mold.  A  piece  of  hea\y  paper  had  been  wrapped  around  the 
handle  of  a  duster  and  the  edges  of  the  paper  glued.  Darning-cotton  was  used  as  a  wick 


44  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

and  the  tube  stood  upright  in  a  low  tin  can,  being  held  in  place  by  paraffin  that  had  solidi- 
fied around  the  tube.  Paraffin  was  poured  into  the  mold — the  mold,  of  course,  having  to 
be  broken  to  release  the  candle.  Another  was  made  in  a  bottle,  and  another  in  a  wooden 
mold. 

A  wooden  mold  was  made  from  a  block  7X2X2.  A  half-inch  hole  was  made  length- 
wise, almost  thru  the  block.  The  block  was  split,  and  the  two  pieces  fastened  together 
with  hinges  and  a  clasp.  (Help  had  been  given  in  putting  on  the  hinges  and  clasp.)  A 
piece  of  string  was  used  for  the  wick. 

Another  candle  was  made  by  dipping  a  piece  of  string  in  and  out  of  wax  repeatedly; 
another,  by  rolling  paraffin,  partly  warm,  around  a  string. 

We  liked  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  dipped  candle,  and  thought,  too,  that  it  was 
the  easiest  of  the  five  ways  shown  for-  making  candles;  so  it  was  decided  to  make  the 
Christmas-tree  candles  by  dipping. 

Five  pounds  of  paraffin  were  melted.  Three  wicks  were  tied  to  each  of  two  sticks, 
nails  being  tied  to  the  wicks  to  make  them  sink  easily  into  the  paraffin.  These  nails  were 
cut  off  as  soon  as  the  paraffin  stiffened  the  wick.  Two  dozen  candles  were  made  in  this 
way. 

The  children  thought  they  would  like  to  make  candles  for  home,  so  we  planned  to 
make  larger  candles,  and  candle-sticks  of  clay  to  fit  them,  as  Valentines  or  Easter  gifts. 

The  children  were  shown  some  tin  candle  molds.  These  they  thought  would  make 
nice  candles  of  just  the  right  size.  To  the  paraffin  for  these  candles  was  added  some  stearin 
to  make  them  harder.  A  candle  made  of  paraffin  alone  will  bend  in  a  warm  room. 

The  children  drew  plans  for  their  candlesticks.  They  were  then  shown  some  simple 
candlesticks  of  good  design,  and  their  second  plans  were  better. 

Many  wished  that  the  candles  might  be  colored.  Green  is  the  only  color  we  have 
managed  successfully.  This  is  made  by  dissolving  green  and  yellow  aniline  dye  in  stearin. 

The  candlesticks  for  the  green  candles  were  glazed  green;  for  the  white  candles  blue. 

2.       THE    NEIGHBORHOOD    APPROACH    TO    INDUSTRY 

Third  Example 
(Plan  of  work  in  the  University  of  Missouri,  Teachers  College)1 

Acting  in  accordance  with  this  view  the  Elementary  School  at  the  University  of 
Missouri  is  using  the  following  curriculum:  In  each  of  the  first  three  years  the  playing  of 
wholesome  games,  the  observation  of  anything  interesting  and  profitable  to  children,  and 
the  making  of  things  useful  and  ornamental.  In  the  fourth  year,  local  industries,  as 
found  in  the  blacksmith  shop,  the  post-office  the  laundry,  the  grocery  store,  the  meat- 
market,  the  dairy,  the  shoe  factory,  the  farm.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  years,  industries  at 
large,  such  as  fishing,  lumbering,  mining,  manufacturing,  transportation,  government. 
In  the  seventh  year,  the  development  of  important  industries,  especially  within  the  United 
States. 

In  pursuance  of  such  a  course  the  three  R's,  language,  drawing,  geography,  contribute 
what  they  can.  A  bit  of  handwork  in  the  making  of  a  calendar  by  the  first  grade  just 
before  Christmas  is  much  enriched  by  a  personal  account  of  the  making  which  is  read  by 
the  pupils.  Further,  it  is  the  occasion  for  writing,  number-work,  artistic  decoration, 
language.  The  simple  game  of  tossing  bean-bags  into  concentric  circles  on  the  floor  is  a 
wholesome  occupation  and  greatly  ennobles  the  social,  instincts.  The  game  itself  is 
much  enriched  by  the  oral  discussion  on  how  to  play,  by  the  reading  of  a  personal  account 
of  the  game,  by  the  number-work  involved  in  keeping  score,  by  drawings  illustrating  the 
game. 

Further  illustrations  would  show  all  the  formal  studies  in  the  first  three  years  wholly 

1  From  Fundamentals  in  the  Elementary  School  Curriculum,  by  J.  L.  Merriam,  Ed.  Rev.,  April,  1009, 
pp.  396-97. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        45 

subservient  to  real  activities   in  wholesome  games,   profitable  observation,   and  useful 
handwork. 

In  the  fourth  grade  a  study  of  a  local  dairy — occupying  ten  days — includes  the  follow- 
ing: (i)  an  excursion  of  three  hours,  (2)  reading  from  twenty  references,  (3)  thirteen  com- 
positions amounting  to  twenty  pages,  which  include  (4)  forty  problems  with  additional 
drill  exercises  involving  the  four  fundamental  processes,  fractions,  United  States  money, 
liquid  and  avoirdupois  measurements,  (5)  chemical  experiments  in  the  souring  of  milk,  (6) 
handwork  in  the  making  of  butter  and  cottage  cheese,  (7)  science  work  in  the  study  of 
various  kinds  of  cows  and  the  care  of  them,  (8)  sentence-structure  to  make  clear  their  own 
compositions,  and  (9)  seventy-four  words  liable  to  be  misspelled.  All  these  various 
"studies"  serve  as  means  in  the  study  of  the  larger  problem,  that  of  the  dairy  as  a  local 
industry.  This  is  a  type  of  the  work  done  by  the  fourth  grade  in  one  year's  work  on  local 
industries. 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  lumber  industry  is  given  twenty-five  days.  It  includes  the  follow- 
ing work:  (i)  four  excursions  to  a  forest,  a  sawmill,  a  planing-mill,  a  lumber-yard;  (2) 
readings  from  eighty  references,  (3)  eighteen  compositions  covering  forty-two  large-size 
pages,  (4)  twenty-three  concrete  problems,  involving  the  four  fundamental  processes, 
square  measure,  board  measure  (in  both  this  country  and  foreign  countries),  common 
fractions,  decimals,  percentage,  and  considerable  drill  exercise  in  all  of  these  topics; 
(5)  ge°graphv  °f  almost  every  country  on  the  globe,  with  the  maps  carefully  drawn;  (6) 
science  work  on  trees,  lumber,  other  forest  products,  sawmills,  etc.;  (7)  drawing  in  twenty- 
two  illustrations;  (8)  literature  in  both  poetry  and  prose  fiction. 

It  needs  but  a  little  study  of  the  manufacture  of  cotton  cloth,  for  example,  in  the  sixth 
grade,  to  call  for  much  arithmetical  work,  geographical  data,  studies  in  science,  drawing, 
reading,  etc. 

Fourth  Example — Garden  Work 
(Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago) 

The  garden  of  the  Francis  W.  Parker  School  occupies  a  plot  of  ground  one  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  by  fifty  feet,  some  fifty  feet  east  of  the  building.  The  area  is  well  adapted 
for  the  purpose,  being  open  on  all  sides  and  shaded  only  at  the  southeast  corner  by  some 
tall  cotton  wood  trees. 

Fortunately  for  the  drainage  of  the  plot,  the  subsoil  consists  of  coarse  sand  and  gravel, 
which  was  placed  there  when  the  excavation  for  the  school  building  was  made.  Upon  this 
foundation  a  heavy  layer  of  properly  fertilized  loam  was  placed.  Each  succeeding  year 
the  garden  has  been  plowed  and  fertilized.  This  has  been  the  cause  of  one  difficulty. 
The  plowing  exckided  from  our  available  plants  all  perennials.  Each  year  the  garden  was 
planned  anew  without  "an  old  year's  brand  to  light  the  new."  That  depi  ived  the  gardeners 
of  many  experiences  which  are  absolutely  necessary  in  the  growth  of  those  who  are  to 
"love  the  green  things  growing." 

According  to  the  plan  followed  for  the  first  three  years,  every  grade  planted  a  bed  of 
some  grain  or  vegetable  for  the  common  use  of  the  school.  A  second  bed  was  assigned  to 
each  grade,  to  be  divided  into  individual  plots.  It  is  evident  that  under  this  plan  the  garden 
presented  a  motley  appearance,  since  every  child  planted  in  his  bed  whatever  he  chose, 
irrespective  of  what  was  in  his  neighbor's  bed.  Sometimes  several  kinds  of  vegetables  and 
flowers  were  planted  in  a  bed  two  by  three  feet.  Tall  plants  shaded  apd  interfered  witri 
the  growth  of  low  ones;  vines  overran  and  crowded  out  other  crops.  The  effect  of  the 
whole  was  not  beautiful.  The  crop  was  limited  in  quantity  and  poor  in  quality.  TLe 
care  of  the  garden  grew  into  a  burden  rather  than  a  pleasant  task.  What  is  more  important, 
the  great  opportunities  which  garden  work  offers  toward  unifying  the  school  and  enriching 
the  social  life  were  not  realized. 

After  three  years  of  such  experience  the  children  were  ready  to  combine  and  organize 
their  efforts,  and  last  year,  with  the  help  of  the  teachers,  a  new  plan  was  made,  the  teachers 


46  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

keeping  in  mind  that  the  garden  should  be  beautiful;  that  each  child  should  be  allowed  to 
choose  what  he  would  plant;  that  he  should  have  a  feeling  of  ownership  about  his  garden 
bed  and  the  crop  he  would  harvest;  that  all  plants  should  be  placed  in  the  environment 
best  suited  to  them;  and  that  every  part  of  every  bed  should  be  easily  accessible  to  the 
smallest  child. 

First,  every  member  of  the  school  wrote  a  paper  indicating  in  order  of  preference  his 
choice  of  vegetables  and  flowers  to  be  planted  in  the  garden.  The  accompanying  lists 
include  all  plants  mentioned: 

VEGETABLES 

Lettuce  Turnips  Beans  Cotton 

Radishes  Carrots  Peas  Watermelon 

Onions  Spinach  Watercress  Pumpkin 

Potatoes  Parsley  Celery  Cucumbers 

Tomatoes  Corn  Beets  •  Muskmelons 

Cabbage  Popcorn  Peanuts 

FLOWERS 


Pansies 
Sweet  Peas 
Cosmos 
Asters 
Bachelor  Buttons 
Sweet  Alyssum 

Violets 
Mignonette 
Bleeding  Heart 
Forget-me-nots 
Moss  Roses 
Roses 

Geraniums                 Morning-glory 
Sweet  Williams          Nasturtiums 
Heliotrope                  Lady  Slipper 
Hollyhocks                  Candytuft 
Daisies                        Coreopsis 
Lilies  of  the  Valley    Easter  Lilies 

To  this  list  were  added  names  which  the  teachers  suggested  of  plants  which  would  be 
of  service  in  the  science,  industrial,  and  art  work  of  the  school  and  which  would  add  new 
acquaintances  to  the  children's  flower  friends: 

VEGETABLES 

Wheat  Dill  Lavender  Plum  Tomatoes 

Sugar  beets  Sage  Kale  Asparagus 

Flax  Bohnenkraut  Pepper  Gourds 
Kohlrabi 

FLOWERS 

Nicotine  Stock                           Marigolds  Celosias 

Caladium  Wallflower                  Amaranthus  Canterbury  Bells 

Four  o' clocks  "    Sal  via                          Scarlet  Runner  Cypress  Vine 

Ageratum  Ornamental  Pepper  Sunflowers  Zinnias 

Committees  were  formed,  composed  in  each  case  of  children  who  had  chosen  the  same 
plants.  The  first  two  choices  of  every  child  were  adopted.  If,  as  in  several  cases,  these 
committees  were  too  small,  the  third,  fourth,  or  sometimes  fifth  choice  of  a  child  was  con- 
sidered and  sometimes  volunteers  were  called  for. 

After  these  groups  had  been  formed,  a  detailed  outline  of  the  work  necessary  to  make 
the  garden  a  success  was  as  follows: 

a)  Making  of  the  general  plan. 

6)  Drawing  of  a  plan  for  each  teacher,  indicating  the  parts  of  the  garden  for  which  her 
pupils  were  responsible. 

c)  Writing  lists  of  names  of  children  to  act  on  various  committees,  these  lists  to  be 
posted  in  the  hallway. 

d)  Making  individual  seed  envelopes. 

e)  Labeling  same  with  name  of  seed,  name  of  child  and  grade. 
/)  Apportioning  seed. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        47 

g)  Writing  and  attaching  to  each  envelope  clear  and  concise  directions  for  sowing  the 
seed. 

h)  Surveying  the  garden. 

*')  Digging-out  of  the  paths  (marking  beds  with  string  has  not  been  satisfactory). 

f)  Making  garden  stakes  and  labeling  same  to  correspond  with  envelopes. 

h)  Making  large  stakes  with  small  signboards  attached,  to  aid  in  readily  finding  the 
beds. 

/)  Placing  of  stakes  in  garden. 

m)  Making  of  a  hotbed. 

This  list  was  presented  to  the  school  and  the  various  kinds  of  work  were  either  chosen 
by  or  assigned  to  the  grades  where  they  were  best  adapted.  For  instance,  the  plans  were 
drawn  by  the  seventh  grade,  envelopes  made  by  the  third  grade,  and  directions  for  planting 
formulated  by  the  fifth  grade. 

The  making  of  the  plan  was  the  most  responsible  piece  of  work.  It  required  con- 
sideration of  many  phases,  most  important  among  which  were  beauty,  proper  shapes  of 
beds  for  convenience  in  planting,  relative  sizes  of  beds  and  their  positions  as  to  best  con- 
ditions of  light  and  moisture,  and  numbers  of  children  acting  on  the  various  committees. 
For  example,  the  favorite  vegetable  was  lettuce.  The  amount  of  lettuce  seed  likely  to  be 
used  was  calculated,  and  this,  with  the  size  of  the  committee,  was  considered  in  determin- 
ing the  dimensions  of  the  lettuce  bed.  In  some  cases  an  entire  bed  was  assigned  to  one 
class,  for  the  special  study  of  some  crop  necessary  to  the  work  in  that  particular  grade. 
For  instance,  the  sixth  grade  took  charge  of  sugar  beets,  the  fourth  grade  of  flax,  the  fifth 
grade  of  wheat,  and  the  first  grade  of  popcorn. 

The  work  mentioned  under  b  was  important.  From  these  plans  every  teacher  knew 
what  was  to  be  planted  in  every  nook,  and  by  the  colored  spots  knew  at  a  glance  where 
she  might  expect  to  see  some  of  her  pupils  working.  The  names  of  the  children  did  not 
a  opear  on  the  plans,  because  the  teacher  in  charge  had  a  plan  which  included  the  names 
a  \d  directed  the  placing  of  the  individual  stakes.  The  beds  were  marked  off  by  means 
of  a  board,  the  edge  of  which  was  pressed  into  the  ground.  The  depression  made  was 
filled  with  sand,  which  stayed  in  place  long  enough  to  serve  the  purpose. 

The  flower  garden  was  more  difficult  to  plant,  because  the  rows  overlapped,  and  the 
general  arrangement  was  more  complicated.  Here  the  beginning  and  end  of  every  row 
was  indicated  by  a  stake,  the  two  stakes  being  labeled  alike  and  facing  one  another. 

With  this  plan  every  child  had  all  the  information  necessary  to  make  him  independent 
in  locating  his  bed  and  doing  his  work.  All  stakes  were  marked  with  paint  or  ink  to  make 
them  proof  against  the  rain.  A  red  chalk  mark  was  the  means  by  which  the  children 
indicated  that  a  bed  had  peen  planted. 

Formulating  directions  for  planting  was  an  interesting  piece  of  work.  The  motive 
of  making  all  the  directions  so  simple  and  clear  that  they  might  be  read  and  understood  by 
a  child  in  the  first  grade  made  a  demand  for  good  concise  English  which  the  fifth-grade 
child  could  thoroly  appreciate.  Directions  poorly  stated  might  mean  failure,  disappoint- 
ment, and  a  mar  to  beauty. 

The  interest  shown  in  making  the  hotbed  is  worthy  of  mention.  The  science  work  on 
decomposition,  generation  of  heat,  plant  food,  and  germination  was  done  with  zest.  The 
hotbed  was  so  generous  in  its  productiveness  that  there  was  a  good  supply  of  plants  to 
give  to  all  children  who  wished  to  start  home  gardens.  Many  children  made  small  gardens 
along  the  edges  outside  of  the  big  garden.  All  summer  good  reports  came  of  tomato  and 
cabbage  crops,  fine  specimens  of  flowers,  etc. 

After  the  planting  was  accomplished  a  careful  record  was  kept  in  writing  and  painting 
of  the  date  of  planting  and  the  date  of  germination  and  appearance  of  plants  in  the  first 
stages  of  growth,  and  the  changes  from  week  to  week.  This  record  was  made  in  order  to 
enable  us  another  year  to  distinguish  the  young  plants  from  the  young  weeds.  Many 


48  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

mistakes  in  weeding  «»vere  made  this  year.  In  some  cases  the  children  were  temporarily 
discouraged  because  they  expected  the  plants  to  appear  too  soon.  One  little  girl  who 
planted  ageratum  waited  five  weeks  to  see  signs  of  growth.  Just  as  school  closed  she 
found  a  few  minute  leaves.  Four  weeks  later  the  plants  were  one  foot  high.  This  fall 
she  supplied  every  classroom  with  blossoms  for  several  weeks.  Another  year  the  data 
recorded  will  prevent  this  discouragement. 

The  school  garden  was  a  great  benefit  to  the  work  in  the  art  department,  as  it  furnished 
abundant  material  and  afforded  the  opportunity  for  continual  use  of  flowers  and  vegetables 
in  the  study  of  elementary  composition. 

Some  of  the  sources  of  special  pleasure  to  the  children  were:  the  asparagus  hedge 
planted  to  separate  the  vegetable  garden  from  the  flower  garden,  this  hedge  having  been 
planted  in  May  and  started  from  three-year-old  roots;  the  bright  red  and  yellow  celosias, 
some  of  which  grew  four  feet  tall  and  waved  plume-like  on  either  edge  of  the  long  center 
path  of  the  vegetable  garden;  the  muskmelons,  which  grew  so  thick  and  luscious  that 
from  a  bed  of  twenty-four  by  nine  feet  were  harvested  over  forty  melons;  the  watermelons, 
pumpkins,  gourds,  and  green  peppers;  the  celery  bed,  which  supplied  the  school  for  seven 
weeks;  the  caladiums,  which  grew  from  bulbs  two  inches  in  diameter  to  plants  five  feet  tall, 
with  leaves  two  and  one-half  feet  long.  Last,  but  not  least,  the  garden  gate,  and  the 
benches  which  the  small  boys  made  from  an  old  tree  trunk  which  they  chopped  down, 
should  surely  be  mentioned,  for  they  would  appear  in  any  child's  list  of  the  special  attrac- 
tions of  the  garden. 

One  grade  took  complete  charge  of  the  grounds  in  front  of  the  building.  There  they 
planted  all  favorite  flowers,  making  every  effort  to  have  a  variety  great  enough  to  insure 
blossoming  plants  thruout  the  seasons.  Some  children  made  frequent  visits  to  the  garden 
during  the  summer.  They  weeded  and  watered  at  those  times,  but  coming  irregularly 
could  not  give  the  garden  proper  care.  The  watering  and  weeding  during  the  vacation 
time  was  kindly  done  by  the  man  left  in  charge  of  the  building,  and  by  other  interested 
people.  Some  children  expressed  a  commercial  instinct  by  selling  vegetables  to  their 
parents  and  to  other  children.  They  agreed  to  put  the  income  into  a  common  bank,  the 
money  to  be  used  in  buying  some  of  the  seeds  for  next  year's  garden.  The  treasury  was 
also  increased  by  funds  coming  from  a  neighboring  grocer,  who  bought  at  regular  market 
prices  what  produce  was  not  given  away. 

In  August  Canterbury  bells,  Sweet  William,  and  hollyhocks  were  planted.  The 
young  plants  have  a  good  start,  and  there  are  enough  hollyhocks  to  plant  along  the  entire 
front  of  the  building. 

This  fall  the  flower  garden  was  cleaned  and  spaded.  A  large  number  of  bulbs  were 
planted  and  by  this  means  the  children  may  enjoy  the  garden  for  many  weeks  before  June, 
while  other  years  they  have  had  few  blossoms  before  the  close  of  school.  At  present  many 
children  are  nursing  geranium  cuttings  and  old  stocks  planted  in  window  boxes.  The 
pepper  plants  are  adorning  several  classrooms.  All  are  waiting  for  the  spring  when  we 
shall  make  a  much  larger  hotbed  and  supply  the  home  gardens  and  perhaps  some  children 
in  other  schools. 

Aside  from  the  definite  knowledge  gained  and  its  all-around  educative  value,  if  the 
work  in  our  school  garden  adds  a  few  names  to  the  list  of  those  who  will  always  love  and 
make  gardens,  it  would  seem  that  it  has  been  well  worth  the  time  and  labor  expended  upon 
it. 

Fifth  Example — A  Study  of  Transportation.     Third  Grade1 
(Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago) 

The  following  reports  were  given  by  the  children  of  the  third  grade  at  morning  exer- 
cises. They  are  the  outgrowth  of  a  year's  work  in  the  study  of  the  history  of  Chicago,  and 
illustrate  one  phase  of  the  development  of  transportation. 

1  From  the  Elementary  School  Teacher,  January,  1905. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        49 

Last  year  the  third  grade  studied  about  early  Chicago,  and  the  different  ways  of 
traveling  in  the  early  days.  We  decided  to  make  a  train  of  cars  in  the  sloyd  shop.  We 
chose  the  cars  because  they  are  made  just  outside  of  the  city,  and  because  Chicago  is  such 
a  very  large  railroad  center,  and  because  going  by  train  is  the  most  rapid  way  of  traveling. 

The  reason  we  did  not  make  a  passenger  train  is  because  there  is  so  much  shipping  and 
commerce  going  on  in  the  city,  and  the  passenger  cars  are  too  hard  to  make. 

We  also  made  plans  for  the  truck,  the  wheels,  and  the  track.  We  thought  it  would 
be  nice  to  give  the  cars  to  the  kindergarten  children. 

JOSEPHINE  PALMER 

Two  people  worked  on  a  car.  If  each  child  made  one  car,  there  would  be  too  many 
cars,  and  we  would  not  get  them  finished.  One  worked  at  the  sides  and  floor;  the  othe 
one  made  the  ends,  the  top,  and  the  running-board.  We  put  two  coats  of  paint  on  them. 
One  child  put  on  one  coat  of  paint,  and  the  other  put  on  the  last  coat.  We  grooved  the 
sides  and  ends  with  a  carving  tool  to  make  it  look  like  boards  running  up  and  down.  We 
used  large  staple  tacks  for  the  steps.  We  named  each  car  and  planned  the  lettering.  We 
called  the  cars  the  "F.W.P.  Fast  Freight." 

MILDRED  ZENOS 


We  did  not  go  to  the  carshops  to  measure  the  cars,  as  we  had  all  seen  freight  cars,  and 
we  had  a  good  book  with  pictures  and  measurements  given. 

Each  child  used  the  book  and  selected  the  car  he  liked  the  best.  I  chose  the  coal  car. 
It  was  34  feet  long.  We  decided  upon  the  scale  to  use  in  making  the  cars.  We  first 
thought  we  would  make  them  i  inch  to  i  foot,  but  34  inches  would  make  them  too  long. 
Then  we  thought  that  \  inch  to  i  foot  would  be  better. 

HELEN  STAUFFER 


We  wanted  to  know  the  capacity  for  our  cars.  We  used  inside  measurements.  The 
box  car  is  i8£  inches  long,  4  inches  wide,  and  3  inches  high.  I  made  a  drawing  of  the  floor 
of  the  car.  We  used  i-inch  cubes  to  see  how  many  cubic  inches  there  were  in  one  layer. 
We  found  74  cubic  inches.  In  three  layers  there  were  222  cubic  inches. 

I  made  a  drawing  of  the  floor  of  the  coal  car  too.  In  the  first  layer  there  were  58^ 
cubic  inches.  In  two  layers  there  were  116$  cubic  inches. 

FRIEDA  MAYNARD 


How  we  made  our  wheels:  We  wanted  to  have  iron  wheels  for  our  cars,  but  we  could 
not  make  them.  We  used  Frank's  wooden  model  for  casting  wheels  in  lead  because  we 
wanted  to  know  how  they  cast  large  wheels.  We  took  two  flasks  and  pounded  molder's 
sand  into  one  of  the  flasks,  and  set  the  wooden  wheels  half  way  in.  Then  we  sprinkled 
dry  sand  on  so  that  the  molder's  sand  in  the  other  flask  wouldn't  stick.  Then  we  put  the 
other  flask  on  it  and  the  pegs  held  it  in  place.  We  then  took  the  two  flasks  apart  and  took 
the  wooden  mode!  out.  We  made  air  holes  in  the  flask  on  top  with  a  hatpin  and  a  larger 
hole  to  pour  the  melted  lead  in.  We  put  the  flasks  together  again  and  poured  the  lead  in 
the  hole.  When  cool  we  took  the  flask  apart  and  this  is  the  way  the  lead  wheels  looked. 
The  reason  there  are  these  holes  in  them  is  because  there  were  not  enough  air  holes  in  the 
flasks  and  the  melted  lead  couldn't  push  the  air  out. 

DOROTHY  WING 


When  we  made  the  wheels  we  used  the  same  scale  that  we  did  in  making  the  cars, 
only  we  made  the  flange  bigger.  The  reason  we  did  this  is  because  the  little  cars  are  not 
heavy  enough  to  stay  on  the  track. 

I  made  a  model  of  the  wheels  on  the  lathe. 

FRANK  PACKARD 


50  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Everybody  in  the  third  grade  last  year  made  a  drawing  for  the  truck  for  our  cars,  and 
we  at  last  decided  upon  one.  The  truck  is  made  of  some  metal.  It  fits  on  the  bottom 
of  the  car  and  holds  the  wheels  onto  the  car.  We  are  going  to  screw  our  truck  to  the  car 
so  it  can  turn  a  little  when  going  around  curves.  We  did  not  plan  to  keep  the  side  of  the 
truck  from  hitting  the  wheels,  and  if  it  did  the  car  could  not  move  very  easily,  so  we  think 
we  will  put  a  washer  between  the  truck  and  the  wheels.  The  wheels  are  f  inch  below 
the  bottom  of  the  car.  We  made  them  that  way  so  the  wheels  will  not  hit  the  bottom  of  the 
car.  We  shall  make  the  hole  that  we  shall  put  the  axle  in  larger  than  the  axle,  so  it  will 
have  plenty  of  room  to  turn  around. 

LUCY  SMITH 


If  we  were  to  use  these  cars  we  would  send  the  stock  car  west  to  the  cattle  ranches  to 
be  filled  with  cattle  and  bring  it  back  to  the  Stock  Yards  to  unload.  The  refrigerator  cars 
we  would  send  to  the  Stock  Yards,  fill  with  fresh  meat,  and  ship  to  the  East  where  the 
people  need  it  most.  The  coal  car  we  could  send  right  down  in  Illinois  and  fill  with  coal  to 
help  carry  on  the  great  manufacturing  in  the  city.  The  furniture  car  we  could  fill  with 
furniture  here  and  ship  West,  where  the  people  need  it  most.  The  box  car  we  could  take 
to  Minnesota  to  fill  with  grain,  or  it  might  be  used  for  any  common  freight.  The  caboose 
is  used  for  the  people  who  work  on  the  train  and  the  men  who  look  after  the  stock. 

We  went  down  to  measure  the  kindergarten  circle,  and  found  it  was  sixteen  feet  in 
diameter.  We  found  there  was  room  just  outside  the  circle  for  the  track.  It  is  to  be  made 
in  sections  so  it  can  be  stored  away  when  not  in  use. 

As  we  have  done  all  we  can  on  the  cars,  we  have  asked  the  big  boys  to  help  finish 
them,  so  the  kindergarten  children  can  use  them  very  soon. 

OWEN  WHITE 


There  were  many  problems  in  arithmetic  not  suggested  in  the  children's  reports, 
such  as  finding  the  capacity  in  real  cars,  and  finding  the  number  of  board  feet  and  the  cost 
of  the  lumber  used  in  making  cars. 

B.     STUDIES  OF  INDUSTRIES  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 

I.      THE   CERAMIC  INDUSTRIES1 

It  is  the  purpose  of  pottery  teaching  not  to  develop  a  craft  nor,  primarily,  skill,  but 
to  present  for  the  first  time  in  school  life  a  complete  view  and  knowledge  of  some  one 
industry  (ceramics),  and  to  call  attention  to  artistic  excellence  as  something  to  be  desired; 
in  other  words,  to  develop  a  high  order  of  industrial  sense,  and  this  involves  design. 
Objects  to  be  modeled  should  in  every  case  have  a  real  use,  and  that  use  should  be  in  mind 
to  the  last.  They  should  be  familiar  objects  and  usually  admit  of  a  bit  of  decoration  or 
decorative  treatment.  The  following  list  will  be  suggestive: 

Tiles  (square,  round,  oblong,  triangular)  for  flower  pots  and  tea  pots.  Square  tiles 
of  various  weights  for  paper  weights.  Incised,  inlaid,  and  modeled  decoration. 

Shallow  saucers  and  trays. 

Bowls.  These  if  well  modeled  are  an  addition  to  the  tea  or  dining  table.  Incised  or 
modeled  decoration. 

Ash-trays,  match-holders. 

Ink-wells,  which  may  have  space  provided  for  pens. 

Flower-pots.  These  furnish  one  of  the  best  problems  in  fine  proportions  and  reserved 
decorative  treatment.  Incised  or  modeled  decoration. 

Receptacles  for  flowers.  The  vase  should  be  designed  for  characteristic  kinds  of 
flowers — those  with  long  or  short  stems.  Incised  or  modeled  decoration,  suitable  color. 

1  From  "A  Course  of  Study  in  Manual  Training,"  by  C.  L.  Boone,  Manual  Training  Magazine,  December, 
1908,  February,  1909. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        51 

Fern-boxes.  These  are  usually  square  but  may  be  oblong  like  a  miniature  window- 
box.  Each  of  the  four  sides  offers  a  most  tempting  space  for  decoration. 

Jars  with  covers,  for  crackers,  candies,  tea,  tobacco,  etc.  These  are  fine  technical 
problems  representing  the  greatest  development  of  fourth-  or  fifth-grade  work.  The  design 
problem  here  is  simple  and  definite. 

The  above  exercises  aggregate  more  than  any  class  can  do  in  one  year  but  they  repre- 
sent work  which  has  been  tested  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  grades 

Processes 

The  teaching  is  begun  in  the  following  way:  pupils  are  instructed  in  the  handling  of 
clay  and  in  the  manner  of  making  good  tiles  that  will  not  crack  or  warp.  Tiles  are  built 
most  easily  on  common  school  slates.  The  size  of  the  tile  having  been  determined,  a  thin 
layer  of  clay  is  built  with  small  pieces  well  worked  together,  making  a  foundation  somewhat 
larger  than  the  required  size.  On  this  foundation  other  small  bits  of  clay  (as  large  as  a 
marble  or  walnut)  are  thoroly  worked  until  the  tile  is  f  inch  thick,  homogeneous  and 
perfectly  smooth  and  level.  The  edges  can  then  be  cut  straight  and  the  corners  square 
with  a  thin-bladed  wooden  or  wire-end  modeling  tool.  One  tool  with  a  wire  loop  at  one 
end  is  sufficient  for  every  pottery  purpose  in  the  intermediate  grades.  This  tile  is  the 
foundation  for  all  other  pottery  problems.  It  is  the  first  thing  made,  serving  as  the  bottom 
for  jars,  flower-pots,  and  boxes. 

Bowls,  trays,  and  other  vessels  are  usually  built  by  the  method  still  used  by  the 
Indians.  It  is  the  practice  which  has  been  followed  by  most  primitive  people  and  can  be 
made  to  produce  very  perfect  ware.  A  lump  of  clay  is  rolled  into  a  thick  rope,  £  inch  in 
diameter.  This  is  coiled  to  form  the  bottom,  and  the  coils  well  worked  together  on  one 
side,  the  whole  turned  over  and  the  opposite  side  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  Additional 
rolls  are  laid  around  the  edge  of  the  foundation,  on  the  tile,  making  the  wall  of  the  pot. 
When  the  wall  has  been  built  up  three  or  four  layers  these  should  be  worked  together  both 
inside  and  out  to  make  the  wall  solid  and  firm.  Each  layer  must  be  securely  fastened  to 
the  one  below,  otherwise  the  vessel  will  crack  in  firing. 

This  practice  of  using  rolls  of  clay  produces  pottery  rather  quickly  and  enables  the 
pupil  to  soon  learn  to  control  the  shape  of  the  piece.  To  make  the  pot  grow  larger  in 
diameter  as  it  grows  up,  each  successive  layer  is  laid  a  bit  toward  the  outer  edge  of  the  rim; 
to  contract  the  top,  the  successive  rings  of  clay  are  attached  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  roll 
beneath.  To  be  successful  the  rolls  should  be  made  with  the  fewest  possible  manipulations, 
as  clay  tends  to  dry  and  crumble  with  much  handling 

This  primitive  process  is  quite  as  satisfactory  for  rectangular  things,  only  care  must 
be  used  to  keep  corners  square  and  the  sides  straight. 

Pottery,  even  built  ware,  should  be  as  thin  as  possible.  As  pupils  gain  skill  their 
building  ought  to  be  more  true  and  they  should  make  lighter  pieces.  All  pieces  made  in 
this  way  must  be  scraped  down  smooth  on  the  outside,  and  this  process  can  be  carried  on 
until  the  walls  of  the  pot  are  quite  thin.  The  scraping  (with  the  tool  mentioned)  should  be 
done  if  possible  after  the  work  has  stood  a  day  or  two  and  become  somewhat  stiffened,  so 
that  handling  will  not  put  it  out  of  plumb 

Decoration 

Ornament  should  keep  its  proper  place  as  a  part  of  the  whole  design.  The  application 
of  ornament  should  be  consistent  with  the  material  of  the  object  decorated.  Clay  pieces 
may  be  embellished  by  motifs  scratched  in  the  soft  material,  or  modeled  in  relief,  or  even 
painted  on,  if  the  painting  be  done  in  color  that  will  stand  fire.  The  most  direct  orna- 
ment is  that  incised  in  the  clay  itself  and  this  kind  is  the  backbone  of  design  for  pottery 
decoration. 

(These  articles  include  detailed  directions  for  applving  decoration,  firing,  g^ing,  etc., 
with  lists  of  material  required  and  their  cost.) 


52  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

2.       A   STUDY    OF   THE    MACHINE    SHOP    IN   GRADE    VI ' 

(Horace  Mann  School,  New  York) 

From  the  handicraft  work  of  the  preceding  year  the  sixth  grade  advances  to  a  study 
of  the  factory,  or  mill,  as  illustrating  the  modern  method  of  production.  In  carrying 
forward  this  study,  the  class  constructs  a  model  of  some  type  of  factory  and  installs  models 
of  machines,  which  are  belted  to  lines  of  shafting  and  driven  with  water-wheels.  Along 
with  the  constructive  work,  and  of  fully  equal  importance,  is  the  study  of  an  actual  factory, 
its  system  of  organization  and  division  of  labor,  the  source  of  power,  and  the  nature  of  its 
processes  and  products.  Visits  to  shops  and  mills  are  an  important  help  in  this  part  of 
the  work. 

Just  how  the  study  is  conducted  may  perhaps  best  be  illustrated  by  describing  the 
work  of  last  year.  After  a  discussion  of  the  importance  of  the  factory  in  modern  industry, 
how  its  great  development  was  made  possible  by  the  introduction  of  power  and  by  the 
division  of  labor,  the  boys  suggested  various  kinds  of  factories  that  they  would  like  to  build. 
The  machine  shop  was  most  popular,  and  it  was  proposed  to  combine  with  it  the  wood- 
working mill,  second  in  choice,  in  order  to  represent  a  complete  equipment  for  manufactur- 
ing in  wood  and  metal.  The  erection  of  a  suitable  building  for  this  equipment  was  dis- 
cussed by  the  class.  The  problems  were  presented  as  to  what  kind  of  construction  was 
required  to  accommodate  heavy  machines,  and  how  these  machines  should  be  arranged 
with  reference  to  their  operation  and  the  use  of  power.  The  boys  thought  out  the  different 
problems  quite  intelligently,  and  gave  a  number  of  good  suggestions  as  to  how  the  factory 
should  be  built.  They  suggested  that  the  most  particular  work  needed  the  best  light,  that 
the  heaviest  machines  should  be  near  the  walls,  that  machines  of  the  same  kind  should  be 
grouped  together,  and  that  they  should  be  placed  in  rows  in  order  to  receive  the  power  from 
the  lines  of  shafting.  The  ideas  brought  out  were  reduced  to  a  definite  plan  which  was 
drawn  on  the  board,  and  from  it  a  lesson  was  given  on  the  names  and  functions  of  the 
principal  structural  parts  of  the  mill,  and  the  methods  of  framing  them. 

The  class  was  then  organized  into  several  construction  squads  for  the  purpose  of 
erecting  the  factory  building.  Long  strips  of  wood  were  provided,  and  each  squad  pro- 
ceeded to  make  and  assemble  its  assigned  part.  When  the  boys  on  the  sill  and  plate 
group  had  completed  their  part,  they  located  the  places  on  the  sill  and  plate  for  the  studs, 
floorbeams,  and  stringers.  As  each  portion  was  finished,  it  was  put  in,  the  roof  trusses 
were  placed,  the  floor  laid,  and  the  entire  class  of  twenty  to  twenty-five  boys  was  kept 
busy  up  to  the  time  the  building  was  completed. 

The  next  part  of  the  work  taken  up  was  the  machine  equipment.  The  .boys  were 
asked  to  describe  some  kind  of  machine  that  they  had  seen  in  operation.  While  most  of 
the  boys  could  describe  a  machine  as  to  its  outward  appearance,  few  could  tell  how  it 
worked,  or  what  was  its  value  as  a  producer.  Their  observations  as  a  rule  had  not  pene- 
trated below  the  surface.  Visits  to  shops  were  made  with  the  definite  aim  of  securing  tfie 
important  facts  about  the  things  seen  in  these  shops.  Previous  to  taking  a  class  on  a  visit, 
questions  were  given  to  the  boys  to  be  written  in  their  pocket  notebooks  with  spaces  between 
the  questions  for  answers.  The  boys  were  asked  to  note  the  name  of  each  machine  and  its 
purpose,  to  describe  the  cutting  tool,  the  kind  of  power  used,  and  how  the  work  was  held  in 
the  machine. 

When  the  class  went  on  a  visit  to  a  mill,  and  the  use  of  the  various  machines  was 
observed,  each  boy  was  kept  busy  filling  out  his  answers  and  making  sketches,  and  as  a 
result  he  came  away  with  certain  definite  ideas,  and  was  too  much  occupied  during  the  visit 
to  get  into  trouble.  It  has  been  said  that  it  is  useless  to  take  classes  of  young  boys  on 
visits  to  shops,  because  they  have  little  knowledge  of  what  they  see,  and  do  not  appreciate 
the  meaning  of  it  all.  We  find,  however,  that  if  the  boys  have  become  interested  in  the 
work  of  such  shops,  and  if  they  know  definitely  what  they  are  to  look  for,  there  is  no  question 

'  From  the  Teachers  College  Record,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  pp.  56-60. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL         ^3 

that  the  results  realized  are  worth  while.  Papers  were  written  describing  these  visits  as 
part  of  the  homework,  and  at  the  next  lesson  a  discussion  on  the  meaning  and  value  of  the 
division  of  labor  was  held.  The  boys  described  how  the  work  was  passed  from  man  to  man, 
each  doing  a  part,  and  only  one  part.  Reasons  for  having  a  man  do  but  one  small  part  of 
the  work — just  one  operation — were  asked  for,  and  the  suggestion  was  soon  forthcoming 
that  repeated  practice  enables  a  man  to  do  one  thing  better  and  quicker.  This,  it  was  seen, 
meant  less  cost  in  labor,  power,  and  room,  and  made  the  workmanship  more  uniform. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  was  suggested  that  to  do  but  one  thing  all  day  and  to  know  nothing 
else,  was  a  disadvantage  to  a  man  as  it  hindered  his  advancement  and  gave  him  little  to 
think  about. 

Models  of  machines  were  made  for  the  mill,  each  boy  making  one  machine.  The 
woodworking  mill  was  equipped  with  models  of  wood-planers,  circular  saws,  and  lathes, 
and  the  machine  shop  with  drill  presses,  lathes,  and  planers.  As  each  boy  completed  his 
machine,  he  installed  it  in  the  place  planned  for  it,  and  then  helped  to  build  and  put  in  a  line 
of  shafting  and  pulleys,  and  to  run  and  adjust  his  belt.  Class  discussions  were  held  on 
the  subjects  of  shafts,  bearings,  hangers,  and  belts,  as  these  elements  were  met  with  in  the 
progress  of  the  work. 

The  subject  of  power  was  then  studied.  The  boys  named  the  various  sources  of 
power  with  which  they  were  familiar,  as  the  steam-engine,  electric  motor,  gasolene  engine, 
hot-air  engine,  water-wheel,  and  windmill.  The  value  and  general  uses  of  each  were 
discussed,  and  the  boys  decided  that  the  water-wheel  was  the  one  type  that  they  could  make. 
Different  kinds  of  water-wheels  were  considered,  making  use  of  the  observations  of  the  boys 
in  the  country  and  in  traveling.  Catalogs  and  pictures  were  also  shown.  The  impulse 
or  jet  wheel  was  chosen  as  the  one  best  suited  to  be  run  by  the  city  water  supply.  A  model 
was  shown  the  class  with  a  demonstration  of  its  operation  and  the  question  of  the  best 
form  of  buckets  was  brought  forward.  Various  shapes  of  copper  buckets  were  made  and 
tested  to  find  out  which  was  the  most  efficient.  The  double-cupped  pattern  was  proven 
to  be  the  best,  and  a  set  of  dies  was  provided  at  the  suggestion  of  the  boys,  so  that  the 
buckets  could  be  stamped  out  in  copper  in  modern  fashion.  Each  boy  built  his  own  wheel, 
and  made  the  buckets  for  it.  When  the  wheels  were  finished  they  were  tested,  and  four 
of  the  best  were  picked  out  and  coupled  to  the  driving-shafts  of  the  mill.  These  four  were 
sufficiently  powerful  to  drive  the  entire  plant. 

The  project  as  a  whole  combined  co-operative  group  work  with  individual  work. 
P^ach  boy,  when  the  project  was  finished,  had  a  machine  and  a  water-wheel  to  drive  it. 
At  the  same  time  he  had  co-operated  with  the  other  boys  in  his  class  in  building  and 
equipping  the  model  mill,  he  had  met  the  problems  this  work  presented,  had  played  a  part 
in  solving  them,  and  was  rewarded  by  seeing  his  work  form  an  essential  element  in  the 
whole  result.  Owing  to  the  group  organization  of  the  work,  the  boys  showed  little  of  the 
tendency  to  lean  on  the  teacher  that  is  often  the  case  in  individual  work.  With  responsi- 
bility placed  upon  them  they  found  it  necessary  to  act  on  their  own  initiative  and  to  do  their 
own  thinking. 

The  subject  of  the  power-driven  factory,  complicated  and  difficult  as  it  appears  at  first 
sight,  is  in  reality  admirably  suited  to  the  boy  of  the  sixth  grade.  His  awakened  interest 
in  things  mechanical,  things  that  "go,"  is  here  given  play  and  utilized  to  accumulate  ideas. 
Individual  ingenuity  and  initiative  are  aroused  to  the  utmost  by  the  constructive  problems 
that  the  work  presents,  and  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  factory  organization  are  grasped 
with  surprising  readiness  thru  this  intimate  constructive  experience.  The  boys  obtain  a 
broader  experience  in  handwork  in  making  this  project  than  they  would  in  making  a  course 
of  useful  models  in  some  one  material.  There  are  a  greater  number  of  simple  tool  pro- 
cesses, and  a  larger  variety  of  materials  to  work  with.  The  subject  is  intensely  interesting 
to  the  boys,  and  the  ideas  and  principles  are  of  value  in  the  writer's  judgment,  far  beyond 
the  possibilities  of  any  course  of  so-called  useful  models. 


54  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

3.       A   STUDY   OF   PRINTING* 

Printing  is  essentially  a  democratic  art.  It  does  not  lend  itself  readily  to  the  selfish 
uses  of  the  few.  Knowledge  formerly  in  the  hands  of  the  few  became  the  property  of  the 
many  with  the  advent  of  printing.  Its  development  has  been  parallel  with  the  develop- 
ment of  humanity,  whose  servant  it  has  ever  been. 

This  quality  is  one  which  recommends  it  especially  for  use  in  the  schools.  The 
average  school  is  organized  on  an  individualistic  basis.  Pupils  are  there  for  selfish  motives 
— to  gain  knowledge.  Social  service  in  the  ordinary  schoolroom  is  so  seldom  met  with 
because  no  opportunity  is  afforded  to  practice  it.  At  times  the  spirit  of  social  service 
creeps  into  some  of  our  school  subjects  in  a  spasmodic  way  and  then  shamefacedly  retires, 
and  the  old  selfish,  individual  spirit  reappears. 

We  find  this  the  case  in  our  woodworking  shop,  when  the  occasional  group-project  is 
worked  out  for  the  school,  and  then  the  relapse  to  the  individual  model.  On  this  side, 
then,  of  providing  opportunity  for  social  service,  the  value  of  printing  as  a  form  of  manual 
activity  is  noteworthy.  A  boy  may  go  to  the  workbench  to  do  a  piece  of  work.  This  is 
usually  for  selfish  motives.  Seldom  more  than  one  piece  is  made.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  hard  to  conceive  of  type  set  up  for  one  impression;  it  is  seldom  done.  Printing  pre- 
supposes many  copies  to  benefit  many  individuals. 

Take  an  inventory  of  the  things  a  boy  could  print  and  enjoy  selfishly,  all  his  own,  and 
they  would  be  few  indeed.  I  confess  I  have  tried  and  find  the  list  very  small.  His  personal 
card,  letter  head,  book-plate,  and  a  few  others  would  probably  cover  the  list.  Now  take 
a  list  of  the  things  he  could  enjoy  with  others  and  see  the  vast  possibilities:  motto  cards, 
calendars,  invitations  to  school  parties,  tickets  to  school  entertainments,  school  paper. 

Again  make  a  list  of  the  things  which  are  a  daily  necessity  in  the  life  of  this  community, 
i.e.,  the  school,  and  where  does  the  list  end  ?  Report  cards,  blanks,  spelling-lists,  arith- 
metic lessons,  labels  for  shop,  labels  for  library  shelves,  circular  letters,  etc.,  etc.  Do  you 
not  think  the  boy  is  more  a  part  of  his  community,  more  in  sympathy  with  it  thru 
having  served  it  ?  He  is  an  important,  valuable  part  of  it.  This  feeling  of  responsibility, 
of  value  thru  service,  is  an  important  lesson  in  citizenship. 

SUGGESTIVE  OUTLINE  FOR  COURSE  IN  PRINTING 

I.   Talks  on  History  of  Printing. 

1.  Early  methods  of  transmitting  knowledge. 

2.  Discovery  of  movable  type;   Gutenberg;   effect, 
a)  Improvement  in  type-making;   lead. 

&)  Improvement  in  press;    Franklin. 
c)   Modern  methods;   cylinder  press;   linotype. 
II.    Practical  shopwork. 

1.  Names  of  material  used  in  printing-office. 
Practice  in  holding  stick  and  in  setting  type  properly. 
Setting  type  from  "pied"  matter  for  practice  in  holding  stick. 

2.  The  type-case;   lay  of  the  cases,  cap  and  lower. 
Type-faces;   prominent  names. 

Point  system;   lining  system  described. 
Distribution  of  type  set  in  previous  lesson. 

III.  Excursion  to  a  typical  job  office  to  see  all  the  processes  of  printing  in  operation, 
especially  noting  workmen  and  their  methods. 

IV.  Practical  shopwork. 

i.    Simple  composition;  spelling-lists. 
Margins:  top,  bottom,  and  sides. 

1  From  "A  School  Print  Shop,"  by  L.  W.  Wahlstrom,  Manual  Training  Magazine,  December,  1008, 
pp.  134-48. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        55 

Justification  of  lines. 

Removal  of  type  from  stick;   tying  up  type. 

Removal  from  galley  to  stone. 

Correcting. 

2.  Plain  reading-matter. 

Rules  for  spacing;    indenting  paragraphs. 

Space  between  words  and  at  end  of  sentence. 

Size  and  style  of  type  in  relation  to  nature  and  use  of  job. 

Consideration  of  paper:  size,  quality. 

Margins:   bottom,  sides,  and  top. 

Size  of  type-mass  in  relation  to  shape  of  page. 

English  composition,  reprints  of  lessons,  school  papers,  etc.,  will  furnish  abundant 
material  of  this  nature.  A  long  job  may  be  divided  into  paragraphs,  each  boy  setting  one  or 
more  paragraphs.  This  makes  possible  rapid  work. 

3.  Tabular  work  with  rules  and  leaders. 
Mathematics  necessary  to  figure  out  job. 

Program  blanks,  report  blanks,  statements,  charts,  diagrams,  etc. 

4.  Broken  reading-matter. 

Work  calling  for  considerable  judgment  in  regard  to  spacing,  margins,  and 
general  planning;    programs,  invitations,  posters,  and  similar  work. 
This  should  be  attempted  only  after  considerable  practice  in  other  forms  above 
mentioned. 

V.   Talks  on  methods  of  illustrating, 
a)   Woodcuts. 
6)    Stereotype  and  chalk  plate. 

c)  Zinc-etching. 

d)  Photo-engraving. 

e)  Half-tones. 

/)    Electrotyping. 

g)    Stereotyping  from  linotype  composition. 

VI.    Excursion  to  an  engraving  plant  where  processes  may  be  observed. 
VII.   Practical  work. 

1.  Woodcut:   each  pupil  to  .design  and  make  a  woodcut;   tail  piece;    initial  letter 
(possibly  in  two  colors.) 

2.  Zinc-etching:    same  as  for  woodcut;    book-plate  for  library;    illustration  for 
school  paper;    program  cover.     Combination  of  these  designs  with  type  com- 
position. 

3.  Presswork:  making  ready  of  tympan;  overlay  and  underlay;  proper  impression 
and  inking;   method  of  feeding. 

VIII.    Excursion  to  lithograph  printing-plant. 
IX.    Excursion  to  newspaper  plant. 

4.       A   STUDY   OF   THE    FOUNDRY* 

To  introduce  the  subject,  a  demonstration  of  molding  and  casting  in  soft  metal  was 
given  with  a  borrowed  flask  and  tools  and  some  sand.  The  purpose  of  each  tool  was 
emphasized  and,  as  each  step  progressed,  the  boys  took  notes  and  made  sketches.  Then 
each  boy  made  a  flask,  rammer,  slicker,  and  vent  wire.  As  soon  as  the  flasks  and  tools 
were  finished,  the  classes  were  taken  into  the  school  foundry  and  given  simple  patterns  to 
mold  and  cast  in  soft  metal. 

To  furnish  power  for  the  operating  of  a  model  of  a  foundry,  water-wheels  were  made 
and  the  best  of  these  selected  to  run  the  blower. 

'From  "Industrial  Studies  in  Manual  Training,"  by  E.  E.  MacNary,  Proceedings,  Eastern  Manual 
Training  Association,  IQOQ. 


56  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

As  the  boys  finished  their  water-wheels  they  were  organized  into  groups  for  construct- 
ing the  different  parts  of  the  foundry,  including  the  building,  cupola,  elevator  for  fuel  and 
metal,  blower,  and  the  crane.  Drawings  were  prepared  for  each  part,  with  simple  specifica- 
tions, and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  foreman  of  each  group.  These  foremen  were  made 
responsible  for  the  work  of  their  own  groups,  and  the  teacher  as  superintendent  dealt  only 
with  the  foremen.  These  foremen  were  changed  occasionally  to  give  others  some  of  the 
responsibility.  Visits  were  arranged,  and  articles  and  illustrations  were  collected  from 
magazines  and  trade  journals.  Each  boy  wrote  a  composition  upon  the  process  of  molding 
and  casting,  explaining  the  parting,  draft,  venting,  etc. 

While  the  processes  of  construction  were  going  on,  each  boy  was  treated  as  an  employee 
of  a  construction  company.  It  was  surprising  to  see  how  sincerely  the  boys  conformed  to 
the  industrial  organization  idea,  and  to  note  the  individual  growth  as  they  measured  up 
to  their  responsibilities  when  they  were  assigned  to  important  positions. 

C.     SPECIAL  INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES 
i.  SPECIAL  CLASSES — (In  the  Boston  Public  Schools) 

It  was  for  the  purpose  of  making  such  experiments  as  are  suggesteJ  at  the  end  of  the 
preceding  report  that  the  Boston  School  Committee  on  May  6,  1907,  passed  the  following 
order,  namely:  "That  the  Superintendent  be  authorized  to  designate  one  or  more  boys' 
elementary  schools  in  which  the  course  of  study  may  be  experimentally  modified  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  in  what  way  these  schools  may  become  more  effective  in  training 
pupils  for  industrial  pursuits,  while  at  the  same  time  maintaining-  their  efficiency  for 
preparation  for  high  schools." 

In  accordance  therewith,  the  Superintendent  selected  the  Agassiz  School,  Jamaica 
Plain. 

About  a  week  before  the  close  of  school,  copies  of  the  following  circular  were  dis- 
tributed among  the  boys  who  were  to  be  in  Grade  VI  during  the  coming  year. 

AGASSIZ  SCHOOL,  JAMAICA  PLAIN,  MASS.,  JUNE,  1907. 

An  opportunity  will  be  offered,  next  September,  to  fifty  boys  of  Grade  VI  in  the 
Agassiz  district,  to  enter  a  class  in  which  the  course  of  study  is  planned  especially  for  boys 
who  have  an  aptitude  for  industrial  pursuits. 

This  course  will  offer  more  manual  training,  shop  arithmetic  and  working  drawing, 
and  at  the  same  time  maintain  the  efficiency  of  preparation  for  high  schools. 

If  you  wish  your  boy  to  join  this  class,  please  sign  the  following  blank  form,  and 
return  it  to  the  master  of  the  school. 

As  the  number  who  can  be  accommodated  in  this  course  is  limited,  the  earliest  applica- 
tions will  be  considered  first. 

The  class  was  divided  into  two  sections  of  twenty-five  boys  each,  and  each  section 
worked  one  hour  of  each  school  day. 

In  determining  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done,  and  in  selecting  the  articles  to  be 
made,  one  fundamental  principle  served  as  guide.  Everything  was  made  to  conform  as 
closely  as  possible  to  actual  industrial  work  in  real  life.  The  product  was  not  only  useful 
but  needed,  and  was  put  to  actual  use.  It  was  something  which  could  be  produced  in 
quantities.  The  method  was  .practical,  and  both  product  and  method  were  subjected  to 
the  same  commercial  tests,  as  far  as  possible,  as  applied  in  actual  industry. 

For  two  years  these  boys  had  done  the  regular  manual-training  work  of  Grades  IV 
and  V,  cardboard  construction,  so  it  was  decided  to  begin  the  industrial  work  with  box- 
making. 

It  was  found  that  pasteboard  boxes,  costing  three-quarters  of  a  cent  each,  were  being 
used  by  the  school  department  in  sending  out  certain  supplies,  and  the  class  undertook  the 
manufacture  of  several  hundred  of  these  boxes. 

The  method  employed  was  as  follows:  First  a  sample  box  was  studied  and  careful  note 
was  taken  of  its  use,  of  the  material  of  which  it  was  made,  and  of  the  details  of  its  constri  c- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL        57 

tion.  Especial  attention  was  called  to  the  dimensions  and  to  the  need  of  obtaining  accurate 
results  in  order  that  all  boxes  might  serve  the  purposes  for  which  they  were  intended  and 
also  be  alike. 

Each  boy  then  made  one  entire  box,  drawing,  cutting,  scoring,  gluing,  staying  corners, 
and  pasting. 

Next,  by  a  brief  talk,  and  with  necessary  demonstration  an  explanation  was  given  of 
the  greater  economy  of  employing  "industrial  methods." 

Jigs  were  made  for  facilitating  some  of  the  operations  and  for  securing  greater  uni- 
formity in  the  product.  The  class  was  organized  into  different  groups  of  from  two  to  si> 
boys  each,  each  group  performing  one  of  the  several  operations  involved  in  the  making  of  the 
box  or  the  cover.  There  were  the  box-cutters,  cover-cutters,  stayers,  pasters,  fitters,  and 
gluers.  There  were  those  who  assembled,  inspected,  packed,  and  counted  the  boxes,  and 
there  were  the  assistant  teachers — foremen  in  embryo. 

Of  course  this  was  not  all  done  in  one  lesson.  By  the  time  750  of  these  boxes  were 
made  and  packed  ready  for  the  supply  team,  the  boys  had  gained  at  least  a  glimmer  of 
light  on  five  points  of  superiority  of  this,  the  industrial  method,  over  the  method  first 
employed:  First,  that  there  was  greater  economy  in  the  use  of  material.  Second,  that 
much  time  was  saved,  since  it  was  not  necessary  to  lay  aside  one  tool  and  hunt  for  another 
at  the  completion  of  a  single  operation.  Third,  that  the- skill  increased  very  rapidly  by 
performing  the  same  operation  many  times.  Fourth,  that  a  standard  of  accomplishment 
in  a  given  time  was  established,  below  which  no  self-respecting  boy  wished  to  fall.  Fifth, 
that  a  "good"  box  could  not  be  produced  if  any  of  the  group  of  boys  did  "bad"  work. 

The  second  project  was  a  box  smaller  and  more  finely  constructed  than  the  first. 
Sixteen  hundred  of  these  were  made. 

In  speaking  of  the  methods  used  in  making  the  later  projects  it  is  only  necessary  to 
note  two  points  in  which  they  differed  from  those  first  employed:  First,  in  the  earlier 
project  the  groups  were  chosen  with  reference  to  the  ability  of  individual  boys  and  the 
difficulty  of  the  several  operations.  In  the  later,  the  groups  were  formed  by  taking  the 
boys  in  order,  just  as  they  came,  and  a  "foreman"  was  appointed  for  each  group. 

Second,  a  system  of  "check"  was  introduced  which  made  it  possible  to  trace  poor 
work  to  its  author — thus  fixing  responsibility.  After  the  completion  of  the  second  project 
some  calculations  were  made  to  ascertain  the  increase  of  efficiency,  and  it  was  found  to  be 
about  400  per  cent. 

Subsequent  projects  were  vellum-covered  pencil  boxes,  for  use  in  high-school  drawing- 
classes,  and  "Harvard"  covers  of  vellum  with  leather  backs  and  corners.  Of  the  former 
about  475,  and  of  the  latter  about  800  were  made. 

During  the  second  year  there  were  made,  in  addition  to  the  above,  and  in  considerable 
quantities,  modeling  boards,  window-boxes,  specimen  boxes  for  the  Normal  School,  spool- 
holders  for  the  Practical  Arts  High  School,  looms,  with  heddles  and  shuttles,  for  the  ele- 
mentary schools,  and  cabinets  for  pencils,  crayons,  etc.,  forthe  Evening  Industrial  School. 

The  experiment  is  now  injts  third  year,  and  150  boys,  three  grades,  are  at  work.  The 
results  have  been  so  promising  that  the  School  Committee  has  inaugurated  several  similar 
experiments  this  year  (October,  1909).  The  nature  of  these  experiments  is  as  follows: 

a)  Classes  in  Grade  VI,  giving  five  hours  a  week  to  manual  training  and  drawing, 
without  losing  rank  in  the  regular  graded  system.  These  classes  will  be  called  general 
industrial  or  work  classes,  and  the  product  which  they  turn  out  will  be  such  as  can  be 
utilized  by  the  school  supply  department.  It  is  expected  that  the  work  done  will  arouse 
their  interest  in  things  industrial,  and  that  they  will  more  naturally  enter  into  more  advanced 
industrial  classes. 

6)  Classes  made  up  of  boys  and  girls  fourteen  years  of  age  or  over,  selected  from  lower 
grades,  and  given  drawing  and  constructive  work  for  periods  varying  from  ten  to  twenty 
hours  a  week,  and  also  arithmetic,  language,  and  other  academic  work.  It  is  expected 
that  some  of  these  pupils  on  completing  the  first  year  will  leave  school,  as  they  would  other- 


58  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

wise  have  done,  but  that  a  considerable  number  will  remain  for  one  or  even  two  or  thr 
additional  years  in  higher  industrial  classes.  The  subjects  included  are,  woodworkin 
cabinet-making,  metal-work  (heavy),  sheet-metal  work,  bookbinding,  and  printing. 

c)  Classes  open  to  graduates  of  the  elementary  school,  similar  in  nature  to  tho 
described  in  b. 

d)  Special  classes  in  high  schools  where  pupils  will  have  the  benefit  of  the  regul 
high-school  work  and  an  opportunity  to  study  intensively  one  industrial  subject  such 
jewelry  and  silversmithing  or  electrical  manufacturing,  in  the  afternoons. 

In  most  of  the  above  classes  it  is  expected  that  the  product  will  be  such  as  can  1 
manufactured  in  some  quantity,  and  such  as  will  be  of  actual  use  to  the  city.     It  is  f( 
that  there  is  great  value  in  this  productive  labor  on  the  part  of  the  children.     An  expei 
ment  of  two  years  has  proved  that  it  is  as  vitally  interesting  to  the  pupils  as  any  form 
manual  training  which  we  have  ever  employed. 

2.  SPECIAL  CLASSES — (In  the  Bnai  Brith  Manual  Training  School,  Philadelphia) 

The  general  plan  was  for  three  distinct  but  related  lines  of  work.  The  first  of  the 
was  necessarily  the  supplying  of  manual  training  to  the  public-school  pupils,  since  th 
was  not  provided  by  the  Board  of  Education,  except  for  girls.  Arrangements  were  accon 
ingly  made  with  the  nearest  public  school  which  permitted  the  boys  of  the  four  upper  grad 
to  attend  once  a  week  during  school  hours,  exactly  as  they  go  in  other  cities  to  a  regul; 
manual-training  center. 

The  other  two  lines  of  work  were  arranged  in  the  late  afternoon  and  evening.  Tl 
afternoon  classes  were  to  provide  more  intensive  work  outside  of  school  hours  for  publi 
school  pupils,  while  the  evening  work  was  to  aim  at  elementary  preparation  for  certai 
trades. 

It  was  thought  that  these  three  departments  would  in  time  become  closely  integrate 
and  that  they  would  open  up  the  field  of  industry  to  the  boys  of  the  section  in  a  very  effe 
tive  and  natural  fashion.  The  public-school  classes  would  reach  every  boy  and  the  tin 
allowance,  tho  brief,  would  necessarily  give  him  some  clearer  idea  of  his  fitness  for  mechai 
ical  work.  The  late  afternoon  classes  would  attract  the  most  mechanical  and  would  gn 
opportunity  for  sufficient  variety  of  work  to  enable  them  to  ascertain  more  definitely  wh; 
special  lines  were  best  suited  to  them.  This  work,  it  was  thought,  would  in  many  casi 
establish  the  interest  and  habit  sufficiently,  so  that,  on  leaving  the  public  school  at  fourtee 
years  of  age,  they  would  take  up  an  evening  trade  course.  This  would  not  only  tend  1 
keep  alive  their  interest  in  mechanical  work  during  this  critical  two-year  period,  but  woul 
give  enough  of  practical  preparation  to  assist  them  materially  in  finding  apprentice 
positions,  and  possibly  shorten  somewhat  their  apprenticeship  term. 

The  four  late  afternoon  classes  (twice  a  week,  4:00-5:30)  are  no  doubt  the  mo: 
distinctive  feature  of  the  school's  work.  It  was  the  purpose  that  they  should  be  classes  i 
fact,  following  definite  courses  t>f  study,  and  not  merely  a  group  doing  haphazard  exti 
work.  No  one  cared  to  predict  the  proportion  of  the  public-school  classes  that  woul 
register,  nor  the  proportion  of  those  registering  that  would  continue.  But  almost  from  tt 
first,  30  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  in  the  three  upper  grades  have  been  upon  the  roll,  and  tr. 
monthly  attendance  is  from  90  to  97  per  cent.  Thus,  for  about  a  third  of  the  boys  serioi 
instruction  in  manual  work  proves  to  be  a  preferred  form  of  play.  Two  classes  specializ 
in  the  making  of  furniture,  the  other  two  in  mechanical  problems.  Efficient  turning-lathe 
have  been  built,  with  babbited  bearings  and  pulleys  cast  from  lead  alloy;  also  water-whee 
with  power  sufficient  to  run  the  lathe,  sewing-machine,  or  small  dynamo,  the  latest  trad 
catalogs  being  consulted  by  the  class  in  the  effort  to  secure  the  highest  efficiency.  Whe 
completed  they  were  tested  under  a  pony  brake,  each  boy  calculating  his  horse-powc 
according  to  the  formula.  A  small  screw-cutting  lathe  has  recently  been  secured  and  th 
most  advanced  class  is  now  building  electric  motors  from  the  rough  castings — learning  i 
an  excellent  way  the  elements  both  of  machine  construction  and  of  electricity.  The  turning 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      59 

up  of  a  dozen  armatures  on  one  lathe  required  extensive  organization  and  some  overtime 
work  on  the  part  of  the  pupils  acting  as  lathe  assistants,  but  the  difficulties  were  not  serious 
enough  to  disturb  the  interest  of  the  classes  in  the  problem. 


II.    REPORT  OF  SUBCOMMITTEE  ON  INTERMEDIATE 
INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS 

Aim  of  chapter. — This  chapter  aims  to  discuss  a  limited  field  of  vocational 
education.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  confined  to  the  industrial  arts  (the  manu- 
facturing and  mechanic-arts  pursuits  as  given  in  the  U.  S.  Census);  on  the 
other  to  that  form  of  vocational  education  which  may  be  given  in  schools  to 
youths  (boys  and  girls)  of  from  approximately  fourteen  to  seventeen  years  of 
age,  the  majority  of  whom  may  be  expected  to  constitute  the  rank  and  file  of 
the  industrial  army. 

The  data  or  experience  available  as  a  basis  for  conclusions  are  extremely 
limited.  In  practice  vocational  education  of  an  organized  sort  for  the  in- 
dustrial callings  has  set  sixteen  as  the  minimum  age — the  usual  age  of 
apprenticeship.  Again,  existing  types  of  vocational  education  have  been 
either  for  particular  trades,  and  so  of  a  very  specialized  character,  or  so 
broad  as  to  constitute  merely  the  partial  foundations  for  a  subsequent 
technical  training.  Hence  the  report  must  confine  itself  to  an  analysis  of 
the  subject,  and  a  study  of  the  few  existing  schools  which  shed  light  on 
the  problem.1  But  in  view  of  the  fact  that  so  many  communities  and  edu- 
cators are  willing  to  undertake  experimental  measures  at  the  present  time, 
it  is  felt  that  such  a  report  as  this  may  be  helpful,  especially  in  the  fact  that  it 
converges  its  efforts  on  a  fairly  special  problem  in  the  entire  field  of  vocational 
or  industrial  education.  The  following  questions  will  indicate  the  lines  of 
approach  to  the  topic  as  elaborated  in  the  following  pages: 

I.  What  is  the  meaning  of  intermediate  industrial  education  ?     (Problems  of  definition 
and  terminology.) 

II.  What  are  the  elements  in  the  social  demand  for  this  form  of  education  ? 

III.  What  are  the  industrial  fields  in  which  this  form  of  education  is  possible  ? 

IV.  What  are  the  available  groups  of  children  for  whom  this  education  is  desirable  ? 

V.  What  are  the  practicable  aims  of  intermediate  education  in  industrial  arts  ? 

VI.  What  are  the  possible  types  and  courses  of  work  to  be  offered  ? 

VII.  How  will  the  proposed  form  of  education  relate  itself  to: 

a)  Traditional  forms  of  liberal  (social  and  cultural)  education  ? 
t)  The  manual  training  of  the  elementary  school  ? 

c)  The  higher  technical  or  industrial-arts  education? 

d)  Trades  and  trade  education  ? 

VIII.  What  are  the  possible  schemes  of  organisation  and  administration,  as  regards 
support,  control,  etc.  ? 

IX.  What  may  be  expected  to  be  the  cost  and  return  of  such  work  ? 

X.  What  are  the  possibilities  as  to  co-operation  of  school  and  shop  ? 

XI.  What  are  the  most  significant  features  in  experiments  already  begun  ? 

1  The  report  assumes  familiarity  with  such  recent  material  as  the  reports  of  the  Massachusetts  and  New 
Jersey  commissions;  the  Industrial  Education  number  of  the  Annals  of  the  American  Academy,  Bulletins 
of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  etc. 


60  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

I.      THE   MEANING   OF   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

A.  Principal  divisions  of  education. — Vocational  education,  as  the   term 
is  employed  in  this  report,  is  one  of  the  four  great  divisions  into  which  all 
education  which  is  not  distinctly  elementary  (and  therefore  largely  undifferen- 
tiated),  may  be  divided.  .  These  four  divisions  are:   (i)  Physical  education;  (2) 
vocational  education;  (3)  social  or  civic  education;  and  (4)  cultural  education. 

The  above  classification  needs  explanation.  It  is  not  generally  employed, 
but  the  committee  finds  no  agreement  as  to  educational  terminology,  and 
much  confusion  results  if  terms  are  not  defined.  Therefore  the  committee 
adopts  what  appears  to  it  the  best  classification  at  hand,  clearly  recognizing, 
however,  that  the  above  is  neither  complete  nor  are  its  divisions  exclusive. 

a)  By  physical  education  is  meant  all  that  educational  effort  carried  on 
in  a  deliberate  fashion  (in  school,  home,  shop,  etc.)  which  is  designed  to 
improve  and  prolong  bodily  welfare.  Physical  training,  instruction  in  hygiene, 
maintenance  of  hygienic  surroundings,  etc.,  are  parts  of  this  division  as  we 
find  it  in  the  schools.  Physical  education  makes  contributions  to  vocational 
efficiency,  but  is  not  designed  deliberately  for  it. 

6)  By  vocational  education  is  meant  all  that  training  and  instruction 
which  purposely  ministers  to  self-support  and  productive  capacity.  Historic- 
ally, it  must  be  recognized  that  vocational  education  has  been  given  by  what 
may  genetically  be  called  the  "shop,"  including  in  this  term  the  office  and 
the  store,  under  conditions  of  apprenticeship.  The  home  has  for  many, 
especially  girls,  been  the  ushop"  in  this  respect. 

c)  By  social  education  is  meant  that  training,  instruction,  and  stimulation 
of  ideals  which  are  aimed  to  improve  one's  ability  to  live  the  "group"  or 
"membership"  life.     It  embraces  what  we  usually  mean  by  such  phrases  as 
"moral  training,"  "ethical  instruction,"  "civic  training,"  "religious  educa- 
tion," etc. 

d)  By  cultural  education  is  meant  that  which  aims  primarily  at  the  culti- 
vation of  the  interests  and  appreciations  which  are  intellectual  and  aesthetic  in 
character,   but  which   have   more   relation  to   avocation  than  to  vocation. 
Literature,  art  (when  considered  apart  from  productive  necessities),  science, 
history,  general  knowledge,  etc. — these  are  elements  of  culture  which  may  be 
aimed  at  apart  from  vocation,  and  they  may  be  made  the  basis  of  a  rich  life 
during  hours  of  non-employment  in  the  vocational  pursuit. 

It  is  recognized  that  the  pursuit  of  any  one  of  the  above  large  educational 
aims  reacts  on  the  others;  but  it  is  contended  that  an  effective  education 
demands  some  knowledge  of  aim  or  purpose  which  can  best  be  subserved  in 
the  later  stages  of  schooling,  by  keeping  the  above  aims  separate  in  planning 
work  and  adapting  methods. 

In  common  practice  two  of  the  divisions  given  above  (cultural  education 
and  social  education)  are  described  by  the  one  word  "liberal."  Where 
"liberal  education"  is  hereafter  spoken  of,  it  will  embrace  these  two  divisions. 

B.  Definition    of    vocational    education. — While    we    define    vocational 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      61 

education  as  that  whose  means  and  methods  are  determined  mainly  by 
the  requirements  of  particular  callings  or  groups  of  related  callings,  it 
is  evident  that  the  directness  with  which  any  given  educational  procedure 
bears  on  vocation  may  vary  indefinitely.  The  study  of  science,  mathematics, 
or  art  may  or  may  not  be  vocational  according  to  its  purposes,  emphasis,  and 
the  types  of  students  concerned.  Some  studies  may  be  vocational,  not  in  the 
sense  of  conferring  any  immediate  vocational  power,  but  in  giving  certain 
broad  foundations  for  development.  Thus,  manual  procedures,  such  as  shop 
and  laboratory  practice  may  be  vocational,  tho  having  no  specific  end  in  view. 
No  absolute  line  of  demarcation  can  be  drawn  here,  but  for  convenience  we 
shall  recognize  the  following  divisions  of  procedure  in  vocational  education: 

1 .  Around  any  vocation,  or  large  or  small  group  of  related  vocations,  may 
be  assembled  a  certain  amount  of  history,  geography,  economics,  etc.,  which 
can  be  studied  for  the  sake  of  " industrial  intelligence,"  breadth  of  view, 
vocational  ideals,  etc.     Outside  the  field  of  industrial  arts  such  studies  are  now 
found,  e.  g.,  around  the  study  of  medicine,  law,  engineering,  commerce,  and 
even  agriculture.     There  is  no  reason  why  such  studies  should  not  develop 
appropriate  to  various  grades  and  classes  of  workers  in  industrial  arts.     If 
designed  primarily  to  reinforce  vocational  power,  growth,  and  satisfaction, 
they  should  be  called  vocational  studies.     In  this  report  they  will  be  desig- 
nated as  the  "general  vocational  studies." 

2.  Back  of  almost  all  groups  of  related  vocations  are  certain  phases  of 
mathematics,  science,  drawing  and  art  and  manual  practice  in  which  training, 
instruction,  and  laboratory  practice  may  be  given  primarily  with  a  view  to 
their  ultimate  application  to  a  vocation.     These  will  be  called  the  technical 
aspects  of  vocational  training. 

3.  The  third  group  of  studies  or  practices  involved  in  vocational  training 
will  be  called  the  concrete.     Under  this  head  in  industrial  arts  is  comprised 
manipulative  practice  with  the  materials  and  tools  such  as  are  found  in  the 
industrial -arts  processes  themselves.     Shop  work,  field  work,  the  construction 
of  usable  and  salable  products,  are  all  more  or  less  involved.     In  this  division 
the  manipulative  practice  becomes  the  chief  means  of  learning,  whereas  in  the 
technical  division  it  is  the  secondary  means. 

It  is  not  assumed  that  vocational  efficiency  comes  only  thru  specialized 
training  to  that  end;  physical  education,  training  in  civics  and  morals,  and 
many  of  the  aspects  of  cultural  education  make  contributions  to  vocational 
success;  but  in  practice  these  results  are  secondary  effects  of  the  pursuit  of 
other  aims. 

Under  vocational  education  we  have  five  great  divisions:  (a)  Professional; 
(&)  agricultural;  (c)  commercial  or  business;  (d)  industrial;  (e)  household 
arts.  The  United  States  Census  divides  vocations  into  five  main  classes, 
which  correspond  largely  with  the  above.  The  following  are  the  divisions, 
with  the  number  of  workers  (women  workers  indicated  by  the  second  number 
in  each  case)  in  each:  (a)  Professional,  800,000  and  400,000;  (&)  Agricultural, 


62  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

9,400,000  and  900,000;  (c)  Trade  and  transportation,  4,200,000  and  500,000; 
(d)  Manufacturing  and  mechanical  pursuits,  5,700,000  and  1,300,000;  (e) 
Domestic  and  personal  service  3,400,000  and  2,000  ooo. 

In  each  of  the  above  divisions  we  may  recognize  stages  of  educational 
preparation,  as  elementary,  intermediate,  secondary,  and  higher.  In  the 
professional  group  an  intermediate  or  secondary  stage  of  vocational  preparation 
is  usually  undifferentiated ;  all  professional  education  belongs  to  the  " higher" 
stage.  Technical  schools,  high  schools  of  commerce,  agricultural  schools, 
schools  of  household  arts,  all  give  us  well-defined  "secondary  stages,"  taking 
selected  individuals  who  have  completed  the  elementary  course  and  who  have 
ability  and  economic  position  sufficient  to  justify  the  hope  that  they  may 
become  leaders  in  their  respective  fields.  Elementary  vocational  training  is 
something  hardly  recognizable  as  yet.  The  term  "intermediate  vocational 
education"  may  be  applied  to  that  which  does  not  assume  either  the  ability 
or  the  length  of  course  presupposed  in  "secondary  education,"  but  assumes  an 
age  beyond  that  commonly  found  in  the  elementary  school. 

C.  Definition  of  intermediate  industrial  arts  education. — This  form  of 
vocational  education  is  primarily  (d)  for  youths  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  or 
seventeen  years  of  age,  in  (6)  the  fields  of  the  trades  and  manufacturing  indus- 
tries, and  (c)  does  not  assume  in  its  students  completion  of  the  elementary 
course  of  study.  It  is  primarily  designed  for  those  who  will  probably  be 
the  rank  and  file  of  industrial  workers.  It  is  not  assumed  to  give  complete 
trade  training,  or  complete  equipment  for  specialized  factory  processes,  but 
rather  to  lay  a  practical  foundation  for  these. 

Schools  already  existing  indicate,  however,  that  an  intermediate  school 
might,  according  to  circumstances,  (a}  prepare  for  an  effective  apprenticeship 
(like  the  vocational  school  in  Rochester),  or  (&)  for  actual  trades  work  where 
this  is  relatively  simple  (like  the  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls),  or  (c)  for 
study  in  more  advanced  trades  schools,  where  these  take  the  place  of  appren- 
ticeship. The  possibilities  of  preparation  for  highly  specialized  factory 
processes  are  yet  obscure. 

H.      THE   SOCIAL   DEMAND   FOR  INTERMEDIATE   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

This  subject  has  been  much  discussed  in  recent  literature,  and  the  report 
is  in  substantial  accord  with  the  more  complete  expressions  which  have  been 
made  by  various  commissions,  special  students,  etc.,  in  recent  years.  For 
convenience,  however,  the  commonly  accepted  positions  are  summarized  here: 

A.  General  considerations. — (i)  Vocational  education,  given  by  some 
agency,  is  indispensable  both  to  the  success  and  happiness  of  the  civilized 
individual  and  to  the  prosperity  and  development  of  the  civilized  state. 

2.  The  agencies  formerly  responsible  for  producing  vocational  efficiency 
were  the  home  and  the  shop  (apprenticeship  in  all  callings — industrial,  com- 
mercial, agricultural,  and  household).  But,  for  a  variety  of  demonstrable 
reasons,  connected  largely  with  modern  economic  development,  each  and  all 
of  these  have  declined  in  efficiency  as  educational  institutions. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      63 

3.  In  the  field  of  cultural  and  civic  (liberal)  education  the  state  has  assumed 
a  constantly  increasing  role  in  all  countries.  State  support,  state  control,  and 
state  compulsion  of  the  individual  toward  attending  school  and  reaching  a 
certain  standard,  tend  constantly  to  increase.  Better-trained  teachers,  better 
equipment,  free  books,  specialized  schools — all  these  indicate  the  increased 
socialization  of  liberal  education.  On  the  other  hand,  barring  certain  pro- 
fessions and  engineering  callings,  the  part  played  by  the  state  in  vocational 
education  has  actually  become  less.  No  longer  do  laws  of  apprenticeship  pro- 
tect the  child  against  either  himself  or  his  economic  environment.  The  home 
has  become  relatively  helpless.  In  other  words,  the  social  principle  of  laissez 
jaire  has  assumed  ascendency  in  the  field  of  vocational  education  with  disas- 
trous consequences  so  far  as  large  numbers  of  individuals  are  concerned,  and 
with  harm  to  the  state. 

B.  Special  considerations. — (i)  Especially  under  modern  conditions  does 
apprenticeship  fail  to  provide  for  the  intermediate  stage  of  industrial  arts  for 
children  from  fourteen  to  seventeen.  During  this  time  multitudes  of  children 
enter  the  so-called  juvenile  employments  which  are  peculiarly  adapted  to 
profit  by  their  labor,  and  which  are  fairly  remunerative,  but  are  devoid  of 
opportunities  for  genuine  industrial  training.  In  fact  they  are  more  than 
educationally  sterile — many  of  them  directly  disqualify  the  child  for  further 
vocational  advance,  owing  to  their  effect  on  health,  morals,  and  other  forms 
of  efficiency. 

2.  So  far  has  this  last  condition  been  recognized  that  in  the  more  progres- 
sive states  legislation  defining  the  conditions  of  undesirable  industries  or 
fixing  more  satisfactory  educational  standards  is  rapidly  having  the  effect  of 
closing  many  industries  to  youths  under  sixteen.     This  increases  the  need  that 
the  period  of  at  least  two  years  after  the  elementary  school  shall  be  utilized  for 
vocational  training. 

3.  The  industrial  world  is  persistent  in  its  demand  for  more  efficient 
workers.     In  some  cases  the  efficiency  demanded  is  that  of  mere  technique  or 
skill;   in  others  for  qualities  of  intelligence  or  moral  character.     We  have  no 
satisfactory  evidence  that  both  sets  of  qualities  may  not  be  produced  by 
appropriate  educational  procedures  centering  along  vocational  lines.     It  is 
well  known  that  in  some  industries  this  education  is  now  given,  supported  by 
philanthropy.     It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  systems  of  vocational  educa- 
tion can  be  devised  which  will  enhance  the  productive  capacity  of  a  very  con- 
siderable number  of  individuals,  that  will  relieve  the  population  in  time  of  the 
large  proportion  of  untrained  laborers  who  now  so  largely  fill  the  ranks  of 
casual  labor,  and  easily  become  the  unemployed. 

4.  The  evening  continuation  school  which  was  formerly  thought  to  be  a 
possible  solution  of  the  problem  of  industrial  education,  has  largely  failed  to 
realize  expectations,  and  under  present  industrial  conditions,  probably  ought 
not  to  be  expected  to,  so  far  as  the  group  of  young  people  here  under  discus- 
sion is  concerned.     Youths  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  are  still  too  young  to 


64  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

carry  on  night  study  after  a  full  day's  labor,  especially  if  the  principle  of  the 
shorter  working  day  has  not  been  accepted.  Sleep  and  rest  must  not  be  with- 
held, and  it  has  been  proven  that  evening  instruction  for  such  youths  is  largely 
futile  owing  to  the  tired  condition  of  the  body. 

5.  It  is  not  assumed  that  in  the  years  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  give  a  complete  vocational  education;  in  most  cases  the  completion 
of  the  education  must  be  found  in  the  actual  pursuit  of  the  calling.  What  is 
accepted  is  that  under  school  conditions,  where  the  needs  of  related  groups  of 
vocations  are  kept  clearly  in  mind,  it  is  practicable  to  give  a'very  considerable 
part  of  the  training  which  makes  for  vocational  efficiency,  and  especially  those 
parts  which  the  industry  itself  proves  least  able  to  give.  What  shall  be  given, 
and  what  proportions  relatively  of  the  general,  the  technical,  and  the  concrete, 
must  be  determined  by  the  economic  conditions  and  capacities  of  the  children 
concerned,  the  characteristics  of  the  industry,  etc.  In  some  cases,  the  con- 
ditions may  permit  the  fairly  complete  realization  of  vocational  efficiency  in 
a  comparatively  short  time;  the  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls  in  New 
York  provides  such  an  example.  In  other  cases  it  may  prove  most  feasible 
to  utilize  this  period  largely  for  general  and  technical  training,  with  the  reser- 
vation that  this  shall  be  adapted  to  the  major  groups  of  children  concerned 
rather  than  to  a  few  select  individuals  who  may  reach  the  higher  levels  of 
education  or  vocation.  In  still  other  cases  it  may  prove  necessary  to  have  one 
kind  of  concrete  work  in  the  school,  and  another  kind  in  the  actual  industry. 
These  represent  problems  to  be  worked  out  in  the  process  of  adapting  voca- 
tional education  to  localities,  or  rather  to  groups  of  young  people  in  connection 
with  the  industries  possible  for  them. 

III.      INDUSTRIAL   FIELDS    FOR   SPECIALIZED    EDUCATION   IN   INDUSTRIAL   ARTS 

Specialization  characterizes  modern  industry.  A  fundamental  objection 
to  trades  training  in  public  schools  is  found  in  the  great  diversity  of  trades, 
each  of  which  would  require  a  separate  school.  Hundreds  of  distinct  trades 
are  recognized  by  the  United  States  Census,  scores  of  which  may  be  found  in 
a  single  population  center.  What  was  once  the  simple  vocation  of  shoemaking 
has  evolved  into  several  dozen  trades,  in  some  of  which  skilled,  in  others 
unskilled,  labor  is  in  demand.  The  intermediate  industrial  school  cannot 
primarily  aim  at  trades  teaching  because  (a)  these  are  too  many  and  diversified, 
and  because  (6)  training  for  them  would  be  narrow  and  intensive,  and  would 
prevent  the  realization  of  the  larger  vocational  qualities  which  such  education 
aims  to  attain.  But  it  appears  that  back  of  many  groups  of  trades  or  factory 
processes  are  found  certain  elements  of  likeness  in  the  materials  employed, 
the  tools  used,  and  the  general  character  of  the  product. 

Shoemaking,  for  example,  involves  on  the  part  of  nearly  all  the  specialized 
workers  experience  with  leather,  and  with  leather-working  tools.  Something 
of  chemistry,  of  physics,  of  trades,  of  history,  can  be  profitably  utilized  by  all 
varieties  of  shoeworkers. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      65 

As  another  example,  in  the  United  States  something  like  a  million  workers 
are  in  trades  or  factory  processes  based  on  wood  and  woodworking  tools. 
While  there  are  dozens  of  specialized  trades,  there  is  a  fundamental  body  of 
experience  and  knowledge  which  may  be  acquired  thru  concrete  and  even 
productive  work  on  a  relatively  simple  scale. 

Similarly  we  find  in  the  steel-  and  iron-working  vocations  something  like  a 
million  workers.  It  is  evident  that  machine-shop  practice,  forge  work,  foundry 
practice,  etc.,  are  more  or  less  truly  vocational  for  these  callings;  and  these 
subjects  are  already  taught  under  school  conditions.  Given  more  time  to 
ordinary  boys  for  concrete  practice,  and  the  related  theoretical  work,  it  is 
evident  that  vocational  training  for  this  group  of  industries  becomes  quite 
feasible. 

The  following  represents  a  classification  of  the  chief  industrial  groups 
represented  in  the  United  States  toward  which  it  would  seem  that  the  inter- 
mediate industrial  school  might  operate  to  best  advantage.  The  number  of 
workers  in  each  is  roundly  stated  (where  two  numbers  appear,  the  second  is  for 
women  workers). 

A.  Industries  based  on  wood  and  woodworking  tools:  Carpenters,  600,000; 
cabinet  makers,  coopers,  saw-mill  workers,  etc.,  346,000. 

The  bench  work  of  the  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school  offers  suggestions  as 
to  concrete  work.  Drawing,  physics,  study  of  woods,  the  crafts  studies,  some  phases  of 
economic  history,  principles  of  forestry,  etc.,  for  supplementary  studies.  Some  forms  of 
woodworking  are  localized,  like  furniture-making  (which  the  new  school  in  Rochester 
recognizes);  but  each  large  city  requires  a  constant  supply  of  carpenters.  Trade  schools 
for  carpentry  already  exist  (Baron  de  Hirsch,  New  York;  Williamson  School,  Philadelphia, 
etc.).  An  important  part  of  such  a  course  would  be  the  analysis  and  operation  of  such 
woodworking  machinery  which  involves  main  principles  of  machine  action.  This  field 
of  intermediate  work  offers  peculiar  facilities  for  producing  usable  and  even  salable  products; 
in  certain  industrial  centers  the  part-time  system  might  be  developed,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  furniture-making. 

B.  Industries  involving  primarily  work  with  iron  and  steel:  Blacksmiths, 
226,000;    iron  and  steel  workers  (in  mills),  290,000;    machinists,  283,000; 
plumbers  and  gasfitters,  97,000;  others  100,000. 

Here  trade-school  work  and  the  shopwork  of  technical  high  schools  offer  suggestions. 
Much  of  this  work  leads  to  well-defined  trades.  The  intermediate  school  might  confine 
itself  to  preparing  for  successful  apprenticeship.  Drawing,  certain  phases  of  applied 
chemistry,  applied  physics,  analysis  of  machine  tools,  study  of  the  contemporary  aspects 
of  the  production  and  consumption  of  iron  and  steel — all  these  offer  rich  opportunities  for 
development  of  supplemental  courses.  Perhaps  this  field  does  not  offer  abundant  oppor- 
tunities for  productive,  i.  e.,  usable  or  salable  work;  but  its  possibilities  have  not  been 
fully  tried. 

C.  Bookbinding  and  pasting  trades.     Bookbinders,   14,000  and   15,000 
(women);    box-makers,  3,000  and  17,000;    and,  possibly,  some  of  paper- 
makers,  of  whom  there  are  26,000  and  9,000. 

This  is  a  limited  and  usually  localized  group  of  industries.  Preparatory  vocational 
work  would  necessitate  specialized  practice,  and  specialized  technical  work.  A  good  field 


66  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

for  making  of  complete  products.      Some  experience  in  this  field  has  been  had  under 
manual-training  conditions.     The  work  is  well  adapted  to  girls. 

D.  Printers'  trades,  139,000  and  16,000. 

These  offer  peculiar  opportunities  for  preparatory  vocational  training.  Successful 
examples  found  in  reform  schools,  and  in  the  volunteer  work  of  some  public  schools. 
Technical  studies  and  general  vocational  studies  could  easily  be  evolved,  as  the  field  is 
rich  in  material.  Largely  localized. 

E.  Industries  involving  leather  and  leather-working  tools:  Boot  and  shoe 
makers,  169,000  and  39,000;   harness  and  saddlery,  40,000;   tanners,  42,000; 
trunks,  etc.,  5,000  and  15,000. 

A  great  variety  of  trades  rest  on  these  materials,  many  of  which  are  localized. 
Unskilled  labor  is  said  to  play  a  considerable  part,  but  one  aim  of  industrial  or  vocational 
education  here  discussed  is  to  give  the  laborer  in  fields  not  requiring  skill  some  appreciation 
of  social  significance  of  his  work,  and  capacity  for  change  from  one  minute  division  to 
another.  Obviously  opportunities  for  concrete  expression  here  are  abundant;  and  usable 
and  salable  products  might,  within  certain  limits,  be  produced.  Technical  work  would 
involve  special  aspects  of  chemistry,  physics,  experimentation  with  materials,  and,  possibly, 
drawing.  Mathematics  might  or  might  not  figure.  Analysis  of  machines,  certainly  a 
large  part.  Schools  of  this  kind  exist  in  England,  but  on  advanced  or  technical  scale. 
General  vocational  work  could  easily  be  devised. 

F.  Textile  work  on  factory  scale:    Cotton  mills,  125,000  and  120,000; 
hosiery  mills,  12,000  and  34,000;  silk  mills,  22,000  and  32,000;  woolen  mills, 
42,000  and  30,000;  other  textile  mills,  53,000  and  51,000 

A  great  variety  of  trades,  in  which  it  may  prove  difficult  to  find  basal  courses,  since 
the  statistics  include  under  these  mill-workers,  dyers,  spinners,  etc.,  who  work  with  quite 
different  materials.  The  problem  here  is  complicated  by  doubt  as  to  whether  the  mill 
itself  is  not,  in  many  cases,  the  only  school  that  can  give  operative  skill.  The  Public  Indus- 
trial School  at  Columbus,  Ga.,  is  giving  work  in  this  field,  but  for  foremen  rather  than 
rank  and  file.  It  is  evident  that,  if  it  should  prove  worth  while,  it  is  not  impossible  to 
provide  the  concrete  work  here,  beginning  even  with  hand  processes,  as  in  woodwork. 
Technical  work  could  involve  analysis  of  machinery,  study  of  textiles,  possibly  some  physics, 
drawing,  mathematics,  and  chemistry  doubtful,  except  for  specialized  workers.  General 
vocational  studies — of  markets,  sources  of  supply  of  raw  materials,  economics  of  consump- 
tion, etc.,  easy  to  develop. 

G.  Clothing  Trades:    Dressmakers,  2,000  and  344,000;    millinery,  1,000 
and  86,000;  seamstresses,  4,000  and  146,000;  tailors  and  tailoresses,  160,000 
and  63,000;  shirts,  collars,  etc.,  8,000  and  30,000. 

In  this  field  we  have  much  experience  to  draw  upon,  notably  that  of  the  Manhattan 
Trade  School  for  Girls  and  the  Boston  Trade  School  for  Girls.  Opportunities  for  con- 
crete work  of  a  satisfactory  type  (usable,  even  salable)  abundant.  Related  technical 
work  in  art,  drawing,  analysis  of  tools  and  machines,  and  possibly  in  the  properties  of 
the  peculiar  materials  employed  fairly  numerous.  Some  mathematics  of  a  practical  nature 
can  be  developed.  A  rich  field  for  general  vocational  studies,  like  economics  of  consump- 
tion, history  of  textiles  and  their  uses,  geography  of  markets  and  sources  of  supply,  social 
conditions  of  workers,  etc. 

H.  Engineers  and  firemen :  It  would  appear  that  there  must  be  over  400,000 
workers  in  this  field. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      67 

The  evening  schools  and  the  new  school  at  New  Bedford  seem  to  offer  suggestions  as 
to  practical  courses  for  the  type  of  boy  here  under  consideration.  Concrete  work  could  be 
found  in  machine  work  and  engine  running,  technical  work  in  mechanics,  heat,  engine, 
machine  construction,  drawing,  etc.  Many  sources  of  general  vocational  work. 

The  following  groups  are  important  in  numbers  of  wage-earners  and 
value  of  product  but  represent  less  evident  possibilities  of  approach  for  the 
intermediate  industrial  school. 

I.  Industries  involving  primarily  work  with  stone:  Masons,  160,000; 
roofers  and  slaters,  9,000;  marble  and  stone  cutters,  54,000;  plasterers, 
35,000. 

In  the  formation  of  intermediate  school  work  in  this  group  of  industries,  we  have  little 
experience  to  fall  back  upon.  Apprenticeship  still  survives  here  in  considerable  measure. 
Some  of  the  concrete  work  would  be  similar  to  that  found  in  iron  and  steel;  theoretically 
it. would  appear  easy  to  provide  other  forms  of  concrete  work  with  building-stones,  marble, 
etc.  The  technical  studies  would  involve  modified  forms  of  drawing,  art,  mechanics,  and 
mathematics;  and  general  vocational  studies  based  on  specialized  phases  of  geography, 
geology,  history,  economics,  would  be  easily  supplied  if  the  school  of  this  type  were  called 
into  existence.  Many  of  these  industries  being  localized,  the  establishment  of  such  schools 
would  be  a  simple  proposition. 

J.  The  clay  and  glass  industries,  where  furnace  heat  is  also  a  factor;  Brick 
and  tile  makers,  50,000;  glass- workers,  50,000;  potters,  16,000. 

These  industries  are  usually  much  localized.  Some  of  them  now  employ  child  labor 
extensively,  suggesting  the  possibilities  of  some  "half-time"  connections.  They  require, 
in  so  far  as  they  utilize  skilled  labor,  specialized  forms  of  art  instruction,  and,  as  further 
technical  studies,  could  develop  a  specialized  chemistry  and  physics.  Schools  in  these 
callings  are  yet  rare,  except  on  remote  artistic  levels. 

K.  Industries  concerned  with  paint,  paper,  plaster,  etc. :  Painters,  glaziers, 
varnishers,  277,000;  paperhangers,  21,000. 

A  variety  of  trades  having  apparently  a  large  common  basis.  Concrete  work  should 
be  easy  to  provide,  as  suggested  by- trades  schools  now  in  existence.  Drawing,  mathematics, 
science,  etc.,  of  a  specialized  kind.  Largely  localized  so  that  each  large  city  could  afford 
to  maintain  such  a  school,  if  it  appears  that  apprenticeship  is  ineffective. 

L.  Food  making  or  preparing  industries,  but  not  household  arts:  Butchers, 
113,000;  bakers,  74,000  and  4,000;  confectioners,  21,000  and  9,000;  mis- 
cellaneous food-preparers  on  factory  scale,  65,000  and  5,000. 

A  field  in  which  little  is  done  in  America  in  preparatory  industrial  training,  but  numer- 
ous examples  in  Germany.  It  would  appear  that  opportunities  for  concrete  work  should 
be  abundant  and  field  of  technical  work  in  biology,  chemistry,  physics,  quite  unlimited. 
Possibly  one  of  the  few  industrial  fields  not  requiring  art  or  drawing  as  a  vocational  study. 
Abundant  general  studies  from  the  economics  of  consumption.  Much  of  the  theoretic 
material  could  be  derived  from  best  schools  in  household  arts.  Since  confectionery  making, 
for  example,  is  now  a  juvenile  industry,  half-time  co-operation  might  be  feasible. 

M.  Workers  with  tobacco:  87,000  and  43;  this  is  largely  an  unexplored, 
but  socially  important,  field  of  production. 
N.  Miners  and  quarrymen:   500,000. 


68  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

This  is  an  immense  and  important  field  of  industry.  It  may  offer  good  opportunities 
for  preliminary  training  but  it  has  so  far  received  little  consideration.  Possibly  half-time 
work  might  suffice  to  give  part  of  the  concrete  work.  A  certain  amount  of  concrete  work 
with  wood  and  steel  would  be  of  some  service.  Opportunities  for  technical  work  in  science 
and  mathematics  abundant,  and  also  probably  in  analysis  of  machines,  studies  of  gas, 
explosives,  etc. 

Other  divisions  might  be  made.  For  example,  metal-working  on  a  small 
scale,  or  with  materials  other  than  iron  and  steel,  furnishes  certain  fairly 
localized  trades,  for  which  special  preparation  might  be  necessary.  Schools 
for  jewelers  and  watchmakers  may  furnish  some  hints,  as  also  evening  classes 
for  tin  and  sheet  metal  work.  This  work  is  being  taken  increasingly  by  girls. 
Let  it  be  repeated  that  the  above  classification  is  merely  tentative,  with  a  view 
to  finding  a  few  simple  groups  of  callings,  for  each  of  which  suitable  basal 
preparation  could  be  given. 

IV.      GROUPS   OF   CHILDREN   AVAILABLE  FOR   INTERMEDIATE   INDUSTRIAL 

SCHOOLS 

Schools  or  courses  cannot  be  established  to  meet  individual  wants.  Econ- 
omy requires  that  there  should  be  available  for  any  type  of  vocational  school 
large  groups  whose  interests,  capacities,  and  probable  economic  destination 
justify  the  maintenance  of  such  schools.  The  following  commonly  accepted 
facts  are  important: 

1.  Large  numbers  of  children,  commonly  more  than  half  of  those  entering 
public  schools,  do  not  complete  the  eighth  grade,  and  these  usually  leave  school 
as  soon  as  the  compulsory  period  of  school  attendance  has  elapsed. 

2.  Of  pupils  finishing  the  elementary  a  majority  either  do  not  enter  the 
high  school,  or  their  period  of  attendance  thereat  is  brief. 

3.  In  urban  communities  large  numbers  of  the  above  children  enter  the 
non-educative  juvenile  employments. 

4.  In  the  majority  of  cities  of  the  United  States,  excepting  those  that  are 
purely  commercial  centers,  there  is  a  considerable  localization  of  industry. 
Examination  of  the  census  of  manufactures  will  reveal  that  this  is  the  tendency 
to  an  extent  not  commonly  realized. 

5.  In  all  large  cities  there  are  found  enough  workers  in  certain  trades  to 
justify  preparatory  schools  looking  toward  these  industries:    woodworking, 
working  with  iron  and  steel,  printing,  painting,  varnishing,  etc.,  food  stuffs 
(baking,  butchery),  and  possibly  stone  and  tile  work.     For  each  of  these  groups 
enough  workers  in  prospect  should  be  available  to  justify  the  maintenance  of 
such  schools. 

No  satisfactory  studies  exist  showing  the  distribution  of  the  grades  or 
kinds  of  ability  suitable  for  the  various  major  types  of  vocational  training 
proposed  above.  Probably  such  studies  may  not  be  expected  until  society  has 
begun  establishing  schools,  and  finds  a  considerable  group  of  children  not 
adapted  to  one,  but  probably  suitable  for  another. 

Experience  shows  that  it  is  not  difficult  to  fill  up  a  vocational  school,  once 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      6} 

its  purpose  and  industrial  value  are  recognized.  Ultimately  we  may  reasonably 
expect  attendance  to  be  made  compulsory  on  some  form  of  vocational  school, 
the  pupil  being  left  to  elect  the  type  of  vocation  toward  which  he  will  aim. 

V.      THE   PRACTICABLE   AIMS   OF   INTERMEDIATE   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

In  view  of  the  average  age  attainments,  and  economic  necessities  of  the 
children  here  under  consideration,  it  is  evident  that  intermediate  industrial 
education  must  carefully  define  its  aims.  We  note  in  the  first  place  that  it  is 
not  practicable  for  it  to  aim  (a)  to  train  educational  leaders,  or  (b)  to  lay  the 
foundations  for  any  and  all  forms  of  vocational  power  by  a  single  course  of 
training;  and  it  is  not  desirable  that  it  should  aim  (c)  to  make  vocational  train- 
ing incidental  or  subordinate  to  further  liberal  training,  or  (d)  to  confine  itself 
to  a  narrow  and  highly  specialized  trade  training. 

a)  The  training  of  educational  leaders  in  the  field  of  industrial  arts  has 
already  received  much  attention.  Schools  of  engineering  and  mechanic  arts, 
some  of  which  receive  national  aid,  already  exist;  the  cities  now  support  a 
variety  of  forms  of  technical  training.  While  youths  of  promise  will  always 
pass  from  schools  like  that  under  contemplation  to  the  higher  schools,  it  would 
defeat  the  true  purpose  of  the  former  if  it  allowed  its  program  to  be  materially 
modified  in  the  interests  of  those  who  are  probably  able  to  take  the  more 
prolonged  and  higher  forms  of  training. 

6)  It  is  a  favorite  dream  of  educational  theorists  that  some  form  of  all- 
around  training  will  give  equipment  for  all  vocations  alike.  This  is  a  survival 
of  the  theory  of  formal  discipline  and  of  the  belief  that  the  logical  order  within 
studies  is  also  the  pedagogical  order.  From  this  point  of  view,  drawing  in  its 
mechanical  aspects,  and  mathematics,  are  fundamental  vocational  studies. 
But  an  analysis  of  industries  will  show  that  in  many  drawing  is  hardly  used  at 
all;  and  that  in  all,  the  drawing,  mathematics,  and  science  that  are  used  are 
varied  greatly  according  to  the  industry.  Hence  it  is  essential  that  each  group 
of  related  industries  should  develop  its  own  preliminary  course  of  training,  as 
illustrated  in  the  discussion  of  the  groups  of  industries  previously  given. 

c}  There  survive  in  educational  administration  certain  forces  which  con- 
stantly tend  to  deflect  education,  which  has  been  intended  to  be  vocational, 
toward  general  or  liberal  ends.  Those  who  support  this  tendency  take  far 
more  account  of  the  few  pupils  who  succeed  in  any  type  of  school  than  of  the 
much  larger  number  who  usually  drop  by  the  wayside. 

d)  It  is  possible  to  give  a  type  of  vocational  training  to  youths  which  shall 
be  so  narrow  and  specifically  technical  as  to  entail  the  same  effects  as  too  early 
industrial  work.  This  undue  specialization  is  far  more  apt  to  take  place 
under  private  than  under  public-school  auspices. 

Among  the  aims  which  such  a  school  may  well  follow  are  these:  (a)  the 
development  of  a  part  of  the  experience,  intelligence,  and  skill  requisite  in  a 
given  group  of  related  industries;  (b)  the  adaptation  of  its  work  to  the  pre- 
vailing industries  of  the  locality;  (c)  A  certain  amount  of  vocational  selection; 


70  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

(/)  The  development  of  certain  moral  qualities  and  ideals,  such  as  business 
honesty,  fidelity  to  ideals  of  workmanship,  a  sense  of  industrial  responsibility; 
(e)  The  production  of  certain  large  industrial  qualities  such  as  adaptability, 
capacity  to  advance,  interest  in  work,  etc. 

a)  How  much  the  school  of  intermediate  grade,  having  comparatively 
young  pupils  for  two  or  three  years,  can  accomplish  along  vocational  lines  is  not 
yet  known.     Much  will  depend  upon  the  type  of  industry  involved.     The 
Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls  in  New  York,  within  a  year  is  able  to 
accomplish  much  toward  vocational  fitness  in  certain  clothing  trades,  and  yet 
gives  considerable  attention  to  the  physical,  moral,  and  even  cultural  develop- 
ment of  its  pupils.     For  other  industries,  whose  apprenticeship  can  only 
begin  at  sixteen  or  later,  the  intermediate  school  can  only  give  a  variety  of 
preliminary  experience.     It  is  believed  by  many  students  that  the  kind  of 
experience  which  a  farmer's  boy  obtains  along  vocational  lines  is  a  valuable 
foundation  for  subsequent  development.     He  works  with  many  tools,  with 
many  kinds  of   materials,  and  usually  with  some  appreciation  of  the  outcome 
of  his  work  in  terms  of  the  socially  valuable.     Courses  in  industrial  arts  can 
be  devised,  which,  at  least,  will  give  similar  experience  with  the  tools,  materials, 
products,  information,  etc.,  involved  in  groups  of  related  industries. 

b)  Both  on  the  side  of  its  pedagogy  and  in  connection  with  its  social  use- 
fulness and  command  of  local  support,  industrial  education  should  grow  out 
of  community  needs.     For  this  reason,  schools  can  be  established,  as  a  rule, 
only  where  some  prevailing  industry  makes  a  considerable  demand  for  trained 
workers.     An  examination  of  the  census  of  manufacturing  will  show  that  to  a 
large  extent  industries  are  localized  in  the  United  States,  excepting  only 
some  of  the  "crafts"  such  as  carpentering,  blacksmithing,  baking,  etc.     This 
localization  of  industry  gives  a  point  of  attack  for  those  proposing  the  new  type 
of  school. 

c)  Within  limits  a  preliminary  vocational  school  should  serve  as  an  agency 
of  selection,  primarily  by  indicating  to  youths  the  occupations  for  which  they 
are  manifestly  unfitted.     Under  modern  conditions  of  employment,  without 
such  experience,  intelligent  vocational  selection  is  almost  impossible.     Schools 
which  give  youths  opportunities  to  work  with  a  variety  of  tools  and  materials, 
under  competent  direction,  would  enable  parents  to  recognize  the  lines  along 
which  their  children  are  most  likely  to  succeed,  and  negatively  those  in  which 
success  is  most  unlikely. 

d)  The  moral  qualities  most  needed  in  industrial  workers  are  easily  recog- 
nized, but  the  psychology  of  their  production  is  yet  very  obscure.     But  it 
seems  reasonable  to  believe  that  the  surest  way  to  obtain  such  qualities  is  in 
connection  with  the  performance  of  actual  work,  and  under  commercial  con- 
ditions as  nearly  as  these  can  be  approximated  by  the  schools.     The  shop- 
men who  direct  the  practical  work  would  possess  unusual  opportunities  to 
exemplify  these  qualities,  and  to  develop  them  as  ideals.     The  relation  of 
worker  to  employer,  the  recognition  of  the  mutual  advantage  of  "unscamped" 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      71 

work,  the   rights   of  union  action,  etc.,  should  certainly  all   receive  some 
consideration. 

e)  It  is  also  certain  that  the  psychology  of  such  composite  qualities  as 
"pleasure  in  work,"  " industrial  adaptability,"  "power  to  advance,"  etc.,  is 
very  obscure;  but  it  is  most  reasonable  to  expect  that  we  shall  have  to  learn  to 
realize  them  thru  work  of  an  educational  nature  in  the  field  of  concrete 
effort.  The  craftsmanship  sense  seems  a  very  real  thing  in  most  youths;  the 
school  may  find  ways  to  prevent  its  destruction  and  even  to  minister  to  its 
further  development  when  the  worker  comes  under  the  influence  of  factory 
production  and  minute  specialization. 

VI.      ORGANIZATION   OF   SUBJECT-MATTER 

It  has  already  been  made  clear  that  the  character  of  the  subject-matter  will 
vary  according  to  predominant  industries  for  which  preparation  is  being  made, 
and  therefore  according  to  locality.  Under  the  discussion  of  the  main  groups 
or  related  industries,  suggestions  were  tentatively  made  as  to  organization  of 
subject-matter.  The  following  summaries,  tho  involving  some  repetition, 
are  submitted  for  the  sake  of  further  clearness: 

A.  Concrete  work. — Recalling  that  by  this  is  meant  all  work  with  materials 
in  a  manipulative  way,  including  analysis  of  machines,  the  following  principles 
seem  valid: 

1.  The  concrete  work  should  result  in  products  which  are  usable  and  under  favorable 
conditions  salable.     It  will  be  noted  that  this  principle  is  opposed  to  the  one  commonly 
employed  in  technical  and  manual  training,    where  the  emphasis  is  on  the  exercise, 
or  isolated-type  exercise.     It  is  true  that  in  some  successful  industrial  education  today, 
only  exercises  are  dealt  with;    but  almost  without  exception  these  schools  have  highly 
selected  groups  of  workers.     There  appear  to  be  strong  pedagogic  reasons  for  the  accept- 
ance of  the  above  principle  in  the  case  of  youths  of  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  who  are  finding 
themselves  in  an  industrial  sense.     Since  some  work  in  the  nature  of  exercises  will  be  neces- 
siry,  in  many  lines  of  industrial  training,  pedagogical  principles  would  seem  to  demand 
that  the  work  should  deal  primarily  with  whole  products,  reproducing  actual  conditions 
within  practical  limits,  and  that  from  work  of  this  character  should  evolve  the  technical 
exercises  and  laboratory  work. 

2.  While  in  the  earlier  stages  of  industrial-arts  training,  attention  will  be  given  largely 
to  quality  of  output,  there  will  be  stages  in  the  course  when,  thru  actual  experience,  the 
significance  of  quantity  should  become  understood.     That  is,  commercial  conditions  should 
be  sufficiently  reproduced  that  an  abiding  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  rate  of  work 
shall  be  developed.     Some  schools  producing  usable  products  accomplish  this  by  keeping 
an  account  of  each  worker's  contribution,  and  a  computation  of  its  probable  or  actual 
market  value. 

B.  Technical  work. — Already  emphasis  has  been  laid  on  the  pedagogical 
desirability  of  having  technical  work — mathematics,  drawing  and  art,  sciences, 
laboratory  manipulation,  and  even  English  on  the  formal  or  expressive  side — 
grow  out  of  and  manifest  its  relations  to  the  concrete  work,  in  the  intermediate 
stages  of  industrial-arts  training.     If  this  point  of  view  is  correct,  it  is  evident 
that  we  may  expect  the  evolution  of  more  than  one  kind  of  shop  mathematics, 
shop  chemistry,  shop  study  of  physics,  etc.     The  development- of  this  principle 


72  NA  TIONA  L  ED  UCA  TION  A  SSOCIA  TION 

will  be  persistently  opposed  by  those  who  believe  that  the  pedagogical  orde 
toward  mastery  is  thru  the  subject  studied  first  in  its  pure  form.  From  thi 
point  of  view,  mathematics  must  be  studied  as  pure  algebra,  geometry,  etc 
first,  then  its  applications;  a  course  in  general  chemistry  must  precede  applie< 
chemistry  in  dyeing,  foodstuffs,  etc.  Experience  thus  far  seems  to  demonstrat 
that  when  the  available  time  of  pupils  here  under  consideration  is  taken  int< 
account,  as  well  as  the  importance  of  securing  vital  interest  in  such  studies 
the  most  effective  methods  of  approach  in  the  technical  studies  is  along  thi 
lines  of  their  application,  with  comparatively  short  periods  of  time  devoted  t< 
the  study  of  pure  forms. 

In  view,  too,  of  the  limitations  of  time,  it  will  be  necessary  in  planning  thi 
technical  work  for  each  group  of  related  industries,  to  discover  what  technica 
studies  should  enter,  and  to  what  extent  each  one  should  figure.  There  cai 
be  little  doubt  that  all  vocational  education  is  today,  in  this  respect,  affecte( 
by  certain  generalizations  which  emanate  from  the  trade  schools  connecte( 
with  wood  and  iron  work.  Mechanical  drawing,  for  example,  figures  largeb 
in  these  industries,  at  least  so  far  as  the  ability  to  interpret  drawing  is  con 
cerned;  but  there  may  be  entire  groups  of  industries  in  which  mechanica 
drawing  has  little  or  no  place  as  a  vocational  subject.  Similarly  with  regard  t< 
certain  sciences;  chemistry  may  be  of  most  fundamental  importance  in  som 
groups  of  industries,  and  quite  superfluous  in  others. 

C.  General  vocational  studies. — Around  each  group  of  industries  may  b 
gathered  historical,  geographical,  economic,  and  sociological  materials  which 
while  not  conferring  immediate  efficiency,  do  undoubtedly  give  vocationa 
intelligence  and  vocational  ideals.  The  evolution  of  any  industry,  or  group  o 
industries,  may  be  studied  (history) ;  the  present  distribution  of  such  industr 
over  the  world,  the  varying  conditions  found,  the  new  movement  in  its  sources 
its  materials,  its  machinery,  its  social  importance,  etc.  (geography) ;  rates  o 
compensation,  union  conditions,  relations  between  employees  and  employers 
competition,  effects  of  immigration,  industrial  hygiene,  etc.  (economic) — al 
these  may  be  made  appropriate  objects  of  reading  and  study.  To  this  grouj 
may  be  added,  in  certain  lines,  studies  in  the  kind  of  English  which  has  voca 
tional  significance. 

The  above  program  does  not  preclude  the  development  in  these  schools  o 
studies  that  frankly  have  no  vocational  significance.  English  literature 
music,  art,  history,  science,  may,  if  time  permits,  be  studied  as  cultural  sub 
jects,  as  resources  against  time  of  leisure,  or,  as  sometimes  denominated 
avocational  subjects.  When  we  have  once  settled  the  program  of  vocationa 
studies,  we  may  find  time  to  introduce  others  which  are  thus  frankly  non 
vocational.  Under  this  head  might  be  placed  social  or  civic  studies  whicl 
contribute  to  the  making  of  the  useful  citizen.  But  for  the  present  it  seem: 
that  civic  studies,  sufficient  for  the  type  of  youth  here  under  consideration,  car 
best  be  given  in  connection  with  vocational  pursuits  themselves,  and  henn 
in  the  division  "general  vocational  studies." 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      73 

It  should  be  obvious  that  a  program  of  general  vocational  studies  should 
aim  to  reduce  formal  and  detailed  work  to  the  minimum.  For  example,  large 
numbers  of  mechanically  inclined  boys  delight  to  read  accounts  of  invention, 
development  of  machinery,  industrial  movements  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
etc.  Semi-popular  journals  like  World's  Work,  Scientific  American,  and 
others,  should  contribute  material  to  this  end.  With  the  arising  of  a  demand, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  we  shall  have  an  abundance  of  good  reading 
materials  for  each  principal  field. 

VII.      RELATION   OF   INTERMEDIATE   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION  TO   OTHER 
FORMS   OF   EDUCATION 

American  educational  theory  is  committed  to  certain  ideals  of  unified 
education.  Consequently  it  will  be  asked  as  to  what  are  the  relations  of  the 
education  described  above  to  the  various  other  forms  already  recognized. 
Some  of  the  questions  in  this  connection  have  already  been  partially  answered. 

A.  The  vocational  education  described  above  may  be  thought  of  as  exclu- 
sive of  physical,  cultural,  and  civic  education,  as  these  are  commonly  exempli- 
fied.    Theoretically  there  is  no  reason  why  industrial  or  other  forms  of  voca- 
tional education  should  take  exclusive  possession  of  the  field  at  any  time. 
Practically,  in  the  present  development  of  educational  thought  it  seems  almost 
necessary  to  make  this  separation  in  order  to  give  the  vocational  education 
full  opportunity  to  grow. 

In  schools  like  Hampton  Institute  vocational  education  is  effectively 
correlated  with  liberal  education  (cultural  and  civic  forms).  Experiments 
have  been  tried,  and  with  some  success,  of  having  schools  divided  on  the  basis 
of  a  half-day  for  ordinary  liberal  training  or  academic  work,  and  half  for 
vocational  training.  Vacation-school  work  has  in  places  taken  the  form  of 
vocational  work;  which  gives  in  the  entire  year's  program  an  alternation  of 
liberal  and  vocational  training. 

B.  It  is  commonly  assumed  that  vocational  education  does  not  contribute 
to  culture  and  to  civic  development.     But  this  position  is  not  fortified  by 
evidence.     The  cultural  standards  assumed  are  apt  to  be  those  appropriate  to 
people   of  economic   opportunities   and  cultivated   surroundings.     What  is 
culture  when  thought  of  in  connection  with  children  who  may  not  undertake 
the  opportunities  of  a  secondary  education?    Many  keen  observers  insist 
that  in  the  true  sense  vocational  work,  as  above  described,  is  essentially  liberal 
in  character,  that  it  can  be  made  to  contribute  the  elements  of  an  active  culture 
as  well  as  civic  insight  and  knowledge. 

C.  What  will  be  the  relation  of  intermediate  industrial  education  to  manual 
training?     Present  tendencies  indicate   that  manual   training   will   become 
richer  and  assume  perhaps  a  more  vocational  form,  occupying  a  larger  place 
in  the  program.     It  is  also  probable  that  manual  training,  as  specialized  for 
boys,  will  be  so  administered  as  to  reach  boys  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen, 
without  reference  to  grade.     In  this  case,  the  bench  and  shop  work  will  in 


74  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

many  cases  become  a  foundation  for  the  industrial-arts  work.  •  It  may  be 
assumed,  too,  that  with  the  establishment  of  industrial  training,  this  will  react 
back  on  the  manual  training,  compelling  it  to  assume  a  more  definite  and 
pedagogical  character,  and  possibly  causing  it  to  be  somewhat  differentiated 
according  to  the  probable  future  career  of  the  pupils  involved.  The  manual 
training  now  found  for  girls  (household  arts)  is,  for  some  industrial  pursuits, 
a  fairly  direct  preparation.  The  fundamental  difference  between  the  two 
forms  of  education  consists  mainly  in  the  fact  that  manual  training  is  an 
instrument  designed  to  form  a  part  of  the  general  training  of  all  children,  while 
industrial  training  is  more  or  less  specialized  instruction  which  deals  with 
selected  groups. 

D.  Can  industrial-arts  education  of  intermediate  grade  be  related  to  the 
higher  technical  training  ?    Many  educators  feel  that  no  system  of  education 
should  be  allowed  to  develop  blind  alleys,  and  they  wish  to  see  the  way  kept 
clear  for  any  youth  to  pass  from  one  school  to  the  next  higher.     While  in 
many  cases  this  is  an  impractical  demand  from  the  standpoint  of  vocational 
education,  it  is  by  no  means  impossible  to  pass  youths  from  intermediate  indus- 
trial-arts training  into  the  higher  forms.     While  they  lack  something  of  the 
technical  training,  they  will  have  gained  on  the  side  of  a  knowledge  of  practical 
conditions.     In  Germany,  it  is  well  known,  a  large  number  of  the  youths  who 
take  the  intermediate  technical  training  (not  that  of  the  engineering  level) 
must  have  served  a  period  of  apprenticeship.     Then  the  chosen  ones  from 
among  apprentices  are  admitted  to  the  middle  technical  schools. 

E.  As  noted  before,  the  type  of  school  or  course  under  discussion  does  not 
assume  to  fit  completely  for  any  one  trade.     Theoretically  at  least  it  will  be 
often  possible  to  differentiate  in  the  last  part  of  the  work  so  as  to  give  some 

amount  of  special  trade  training. 
/ 

VTJI.      ORGANIZATION   AND   ADMINISTRATION 

Vocational  education  under  private  and  philanthropic  auspices  is  commonly 
organized  in  separate  and  specialized  schools.  When  it  becomes  a  part  of 
public  education,  several  schemes  of  organization  and  administration  become 
possible. 

A.  The  vocational  school  may  be  completely  separated  in  the  administra- 
tion and  support.  This  type  is  illustrated  in  certain  state  schools,  which  have 
their  own  boards,  and  to  which  authorities  make  assignments  of  funds.  The 
California  Polytechnic  has  thus  a  completely  separate  organization.  At 
times  it  has  been  proposed  that  a  separate  state  machinery  of  administration 
was  necessary  to  initiate  and  carry  on  vocational  education.  It  is  argued  in 
support  of  thi^  position  that  the  administration  of  the  newer  type  of  educa- 
tion requires  a  different  point  of  view,  and  different  estimates  of  educational 
values  from  those  which  ordinarily  prevail.  Also  that  the  degrees  of  affiliation 
with  business  and  practical  conditions  is  such  as  to  be  most  effectively  accom- 
plished by  having  separate  governing  boards  and  specially  provided  funds. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      75 

There  are  a  variety  of  reasons  why  it  may  be  expected  that  the  state  rather 
than  the  locality  will  contribute  more  to  this  form  of  education  than  to 
ordinary  forms,  the  chief  argument  being  found  in  the  mobility  of  labor. 

B.  The  vocational  education  may  be  carried  on  by  the  regular  educational 
authorities,  but  in  distinctly  separate  schools,  under  principals  or  directors  who 
pursue  the  distinctly  vocational  aim.     Hitherto  it  has  been  hard  to  accomplish 
this  form  of  organization  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  distinctly  vocational 
education.     Only  part  of  the  work  has  been  vocational  in  character,  the  aims 
of  liberal  education  being  pursued  to  the  relative  exclusion  of  others.     But  the 
intermediate  schools  now  being  organized  in  New  York,  under  control  of 
state  and  local  departments  of  education,  provide  a  variety  of  checks  by  which 
the  vocational  character  of  the  school  can  be  preserved.    These  are  chiefly: 
(a)  state  inspection  by  a  special  agent  of  the  state  education  department,  (b)  the 
provision  that  the  vocational  work  must  be  carried  on  by  a  separate  organiza- 
tion, and  (c)  the  requirement  that  the  shop  teachers  shall  be  men  with  practical 
training  and  experience  in  the  industries. 

C.  It  has  often  been  proposed  that  vocational  education  should  be  organized 
simply  as  a  phase  of  a  complete  educational  scheme,  much  as  manual  training 
is  now  part  of  the  general  program.     Various  suggestions  along  this  line  have 
been  made :   (a)  That  half  of  each  day  be  given  to  work  of  the  academic  char- 
acter found  in  the  upper  grades,  and  half  to  shopwork,  household  arts,  etc.; 
or  (b)  that  the  ordinary  school  day  be  kept  for  its  present  purposes,  and  that 
the  hours  from  three  to  five  and  perhaps  Saturday  forenoon  be  devoted  to 
practical  work;  (c)  the  tendency  where  vacation  schools  have  been  established 
to  use  the  regular  school  buildings  and  equipment  during  the  summer  months 
for  practical  or  vocational  work. 

Regarding  these  plans,  it  has  been  urged  that  in  the  present  temper  of 
schoolmen  the  vocational  work  could  hardly  be  expected  to  meet  with  sufficient 
sympathy  and  support,  and  that  the  traditional  subjects,  because  they  lend 
themselves  so  effectively  to  ordinary  methods  of  teaching  would  displace  the 
vocational  work.  Probably  this  will  not  always  be  the  case;  when  vocational 
training  shall  have  established  its  own  methods  and  content  it  may  be  able 
to  hold  its  own.  Furthermore,  programs  like  the  above  seem  better  adapted 
to  elementary  vocational  work  when  that  shall  have  been  established.  In  the 
meantime,  much  may  be  said  in  favor  of  having  the  intermediate  industrial- 
arts  school  under  its  own  roof,  and  working  completely  under  its  own  program. 
There  is  thus  provided  an  industrial  atmosphere,  and  such  a  school  may  be 
expected  to  develop  its  own  social  spirit.  It  may  require  time  and  tact  to 
prevent  the  growth  of  obnoxious  class  distinctions  between  the  patrons  of 
two  different  kinds  of  schools,  but  this  is  a  problem  that  has  already  been  met 
and  solved  in  the  universities  of  America,  and  in  the  introduction  of  scientific 
and  commercial  studies  into  secondary  education.  Let  vocational  education 
once  establish  itself,  and  it  may  become  quite  possible  to  provide  for  an  amal- 
gamation of  the  various  types  of  effort  so  as  to  secure  social  unity  and  the 


76  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

maximum  of  administrative  economy;    but  that  cannot  be  accomplished  at 
the  outset. 

IX.   COST  AND  SOURCE  OF  SUPPORT 

A.  The  development  thus  far  obtained  in  intermediate  industrial-arts 
education  is  insufficient  to  justify  conclusions   as  to  its  cost  of  support. 
(a)  The  plant,  while  not  necessarily  as  elaborate  as  that  requisite  for  secondary 
technical  education,  will,  owing  to  additional  floor  space  required,  be  rela- 
tively expensive  for  each  pupil.     (6)  Equipment,  while  not  necessarily  more 
elaborate  or  expensive  than  that  now  found  in  technical  secondary  schools, 
will  have  to  be  found  in  greater  amount  in  proportion  to  numbers  of  pupils 
engaged,    owing   to   fewer   sections   that   may   alternate   with    same   tools. 
(c)  Teachers  will  probably  be  confined  to  sections  as  small  as  those  of  the 
technical  high  schools,  and,  where  the  aim  is  to  have  the  work  eventuate  in 
usable  products,  it  may  be  necessary  to  have  still  smaller  sections.     On  the 
other  hand,  there  seems  to  be  no  certainty  but  that  in  some  forms  of  vocational 
training,  when  textbooks,  guides,  etc.,  shall  have  been  well  developed  it  may 
prove  possible  to  considerably  enlarge  the  sections  under  each  teacher.     It 
will  increase  the  cost  in  outlay  for  materials,  especially  where  useful  concrete 
work  is  attempted.     But  under  some  circumstances  profitable  returns  may  be 
had  from  this  work. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls,  more  directly  vocational  than 
most  intermediate  schools,  sells  enough  products  to  pay  more  than  half  the 
salary-list  of  the  school.  In  this  case,  the  cost  of  materials  used  is  especially 
large.  The  woodworking  school  in  Rochester  contemplates  supplying  a 
variety  of  things  needed  by  the  school  and  other  public  departments  of  the 
city.  The  textile  school  in  Columbus,  Ga.,  is  able  to  turn  out  products  that 
can  be  used  advantageously  in  dressmaking  departments  of  the  school.  Few 
schools  in  metal  have  so  far  shown  any  capacity  to  do  profitable  work,  the 
exceptions  being  reform  schools  which  contribute  to  their  own  repairing, 
blacksmithing,  etc.  Another  exception  might  be  found  in  the  negro  schools 
of  the  South  (Hampton,  Tuskeegee,  etc.)  which  dealing  with  a  large  type  of 
youth,  are  able  to  do  productive  work  in  metals. 

B.  The  sources  of  support  of  vocational  education  exhibit  great  diversity 
in  the  United  States.     Technical  high  schools  are  commonly  supported  by  city 
districts;   secondary  education  in  agriculture  is  commonly  supported  by  the 
county  area,  or  township  area,  with  some  state  support.     A  number  of  states 
have  state-supported  technical  schools  (Academy,  Idaho;    Textile  Schools, 
Massachusetts;     Polytechnic,  California;     Industrial    School,  Texas,    etc.). 
Higher  agricultural  and  mechanic-arts  education  is  carried  on  in  many  states 
by  a  combination  of  state  and  national  support,  and  pending  measures  in 
Congress  look  to  the  extension  of  national  aid  to  agricultural  education  of 
an  essentially  secondary  grade. 

The  Commissions  that  have  investigated  the  subject  of  industrial  educa- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      77 

tion  are  agreed  as  to  the  desirability  of  combining  state  and  local  support. 
Except  in  New  York,  detailed  plans  do  not  yet  appear. 

The  reasons  for  local  support  of  industrial-arts  education  as  contrasted 
with  agricultural,  are  found  in  the  concentration  of  taxable  property  in  manu- 
facturing areas,  and  the  probable  return  of  outlay  in  this  shape  in  the  increased 
productiveness  of  the  local  industries.  But  the  mobility  of  labor,  so  char- 
acteristic of  America,  makes  it  desirable  that  a  considerable  portion  of  the 
support  should  come  from  the  larger  area  benefited.  In  fact,  so  potent  is  this 
consideration  that  it  is  not  improbable  that  in  time  it  will  prove  highly  eco- 
nomic to  enlist  national  aid  to  some  extent  in  furthering  industrial-arts  educa- 
tion, owing  to  the  tendency  of  labor  to  move  from  one  state  to  another.  But 
any  scheme  of  appropriation  of  aid  from  state  or  nation  should  be  accompanied 
by  provisions  for  local  contributions,  and  should  involve  inspection  by  the 
larger  units  contributing.  It  would  appear  that  some  control,  in  the  way  of 
final  approval,  on  teachers  employed,  courses  adopted,  etc.,  should  emanate 
in  all  cases  from  the  state  authorities. 

A  fundamental  principle  involved  in  securing  of  state  aid  for  industrial 
education  is  found  in  the  fact  that  such  aid,  more  directly,  at  least,  than  in  any 
other  forms  of  education,  must  serve  in  the  nature  of  a  social  investment,  the 
returns  of  which  will  speedily  be  found  in  the  increased  productive  capacity  of 
the  industries  benefited.  From  the  standpoint  of  economics  it  may  be  doubted 
whether  any  other  form  of  social  outlay  of  money  will  so  certainly  produce  a 
large  return,  provided  the  education  given  is  of  the  right  kind. 

X.      CO-OPERATION   OF   SCHOOL  AND   SHOP 

In  Germany,  it  will  be  recalled,  a  considerable  part  of  vocational  training 
is  effected  through  co-operation  of  school  and  shop.  Boys  are  apprenticed  to 
the  shops,  and  are  either  required  to  take  the  school  work  in  the  evening,  or 
employers  are  required  to  release  the  boys  for  a  certain  number  of  hours  on 
each  of  two  or  more  days  each  week.  Under  this  arrangement  the  concrete 
work  given  in  the  shop  is  real  and  productive;  while  the  technical  work  of 
the  school  can,  if  desired,  be  made  to  correlate  intimately  with  it.  The  suc- 
cessful issue  of  this  arrangement  assumes  a  considerable  spirit  of  co-operation 
between  school  and  employer. 

In  America  we  find  yet  few  attempts  at  this  co-operation.  It  is  a  matter  of 
common  knowledge  that  one  engineering  school  has  made  arrangements  for 
joint  training  with  the  shops  of  its  locality.  The  high  school  in  Fitchburg  has 
also  effected  a  similar  arrangement  with  shops  in  that  city  (see  p.  80).  It  will 
also  be  recalled  that  various  large  stores  and  shops  have  established  schools 
within  their  own  premises  wrherein  their  youthful  employees  might  receive 
technical  or  academic  training  to  supplement  the  practical  learning  acquired 
in  the  practice  of  their  work. 

These  are  but  indications  of  possibilities  in  the  field  of  vocational  educa- 
tion. Theoretically,  there  are  few  reasons  why  this  form  of  combined  shop 


78  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

and  school  training  should  not  be  extended.  Practically,  the  conditions  of 
employment  in  American  industries  are  such  at  present/that  it  is  very  doubtful 
if  many  such  lines  of  co-operation  could  be  developed.  The  employer  is 
averse  to  the  presence  of  young  workers  unless  these  are  quite  profitable  to 
him.  For  the  type  of  youth  here  under  consideration,  the  school  would 
manifestly  have  to  have  the  final  authority  in  controlling  his  time  and  educa- 
tion. The  school  would  have  to  provide  for  a  sufficient  variety  of  work  in  the 
shop  to  prevent  mechanization,  and  to  preserve  the  industrial  aspects  of  the  con- 
crete work.  The  employer  usually  seeks  complete  specialization  of  his  workers. 
The  most  that  can  be  said  is  that  a  goal  is  presented  here  whose  attainment 
would  be  economically  and  otherwise  desirable.  But  it  is  evident  that  a  full 
co-ordination  of  the  forms  of  control  over  children  would  be  necessary.  Child- 
labor  legislation,  compulsory-education  legislation,  the  efforts  of  employers, 
etc.,  would  all  have  to  have  further  adjustment  than  is  possible  at  present. 
For  example,  the  law  designed  to  protect  children  from  the  dangers  of 
power  machinery  may,  for  the  present,  operate  to  exclude  children  in  the 
industrial  schools  of  New  York  State  from  power  machinery,  in  these  schools 
— certainly  an  undesirable  result.  This  entire  field  is  one  for  further  local 
experimentation. 

XI.      SCHOOLS   ALREADY   EXISTING 

Schools  already  existing,  from  which  suggestive  procedures  can  be  derived 
are  not  many.     A  few  types  may  be  considered. 

-i.  The  Hebrew  Technical  Institute  of  New  York  City.  This  school  "does  not  aim 
at  teaching  the  higher  branches  of  mechanical,  civil,  or  electrical  engineering."  "We 
expect  that  the  great  majority  of  our  graduates  will  ultimately  find  positions  as  skilled  arti- 
sans, etc."  To  enter  this  school  boys  are  not  required  to  have  completed  the  elementary 
course,  but  must  have  a  fair  education  along  common  lines.  They  may  be  as  young  as 
twelve  and  one-half  years.  During  the  first  two  years  of  the  course  they  study  the  "sub- 
jects which  will  be  useful  to  them  in  whatever  mechanical  pursuits  they  may  finally  choose." 
"In  the  third  year  they  are  encouraged  to  give  special  attention  to  that  branch  of  work 
which  seems  most  agreeable  and  suitable  for  each."  A  part  of  the  work  is  academic, 
embracing  not  only  general  and  technical  vocational  studies  ("Studies  of  Woods,"  indus- 
tries, and  natural  resources  of  the  United  States;  drawing;  applied  science,  etc.)  but  also 
cultural  studies,  such  as  English,  history,  Jewish  history,  and  civics.  .A  large  part  of  the 
work  is  concrete,  based  on  the  trades  dealing  with  wood  and  metal.  This  concrete  work 
in  the  last  year  assumes  a  specialized  character,  as  instrument-making,  practical  electricity, 
etc.  Some  attention  is  given  to  the  physical  well-being  of  the  pupil,  especially  in  the  shape 
of  the  provision  of  a  hot  lunch  at  low  rates,  and  the  compulsory  use  of  shower  baths.  The 
day  approximates  the  working  conditions  (seven  hours  for  the  upper-class  students),  as 
does  also  the  year,  which  is  longer  than  the  ordinary  school  year.  Obviously,  the  school  is 
adapted  to  produce  good  apprentices,  and  to  lay  the  foundations  for  industrial  growth. 
Its  long  history  proves  that  it  has  been  successful  both  in  adhering  to  its  original  aims  and 
in  realizing  these  aims.  It  would  appear  that  its  conduct  involves  no  conditions  which 
could  not  be  realized  under  a  public-school  system. 

2.  The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls,  New  York.  Because  the  industries  for 
which  this  prepares  involve  less  extensive  technical  knowledge,  little-developed  apprentice- 
ship, and  the  possibility  of  entrance  at  a  comparatively  early  age,  this  school  approximates 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  INTERMEDIATE  SCHOOL      79 

more  the  definition  of  a  trade  school,  tho  its  members  do  not  exceed  fourteen  years  of 
age  on  entrance,  and  need  not  have  completed  the  work  of  the  elementary  school.  Three 
of  its  departments  rest  fundamentally  on  textile  industries,  and  another  on  the  industries 
which  employ  paper,  gum,  etc.  Academic  work  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  arithmetic, 
drawing,  and  some  other  studies  are  followed,  largely  with  reference  to  their  bearing  on 
the  particular  industries  followed.  The  day  and  year  approximate  industrial  conditions. 
It  is  claimed,  and  with  reason,  that,  for  the  type  of  student  reached,  and  the  economic  and 
educational  conditions  involved,  the  concrete  work  itself  and  the  related  academic  work 
have  a  significant  cultural  value.  Children  are  received  at  fourteen,  stay  approximately 
one  year,  and  the  school  undertakes  to  follow  them  into  the  industry,  and  to  keep  track  of 
them  afterward.  The  products  of  the  school  are  primarily  usable  and  salable,  the  school 
aiming  to  contribute  something  to  its  support  by  sale  of  products.  The  sale  of  products  is 
adjusted  so  as  not  to  demoralize  market  conditions.  In  the  final  work  of  each  student,  rate 
of  output  as  well  as  quality  is  measured,  so  as  to  approximate  industrial  conditions  as  far 
as  practicable.  This  school  contributes  directly  to  the  physical  and  social  education  of  its 
students.  Physical  exercise,  shower  baths,  and  rneals  are  provided  in  such  a  way  as  to  bear 
directly  on  health  conditions.  Furthermore,  careful  instruction  in  hygiene  acquaints  the 
girl  with  conditions  of  maintaining  health  in  work,  the  importance  of  which  is  borne  in  upon 
each  student.  On  the  side  of  social  education,  each  girl  is  especially  instructed,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  occupation  into  which  she  is  going,  on  matters  of  relation  to  employers,  and 
to  fellow-workers  in  unions,  etc.  Owing  to  the  possibilities  of  correlating  much  of  this 
teaching,  as  well  as  that  in  hygiene,  with  actual  industrial  conditions,  they  become  especially 
vital  to  the  pupils. 

3.  The  Secondary  Industrial  School  of  Columbus,  Ga.     This  is  a  part  of  the  public- 
school  system,  fitting  boys  for  two  fundamental  industries,  mechanical  work  with  wood 
and  iron,  and  textile  work.     A  course  of  three  years,  begins  with  children  of  fourteen. 
More  than  half  the  work  of  each  day  is  concrete  in  character.     The  day  follows  working 
conditions,  and  the  year  lasts  eleven  months.     The  textile  schools  produce  cloth  for  sale, 
tho  some  of  it  is  used  in  other  departments  of  the  industrial  school.     The  superintendent 
believes  that  the  school  might  to  some  extent  follow  the  Roycrofters'  plan  of  producing 
articles  which  should  be  of  use  and  would  be  especially  valued  because  of  their  fine  or 
individual  character. 

4.  New  Bedford,  Mass.,  Industrial  School.     This  school  contemplates  a  four-year 
program,  but  each  year's  work  enough  of  a  unit  to  be  profitable  to  any  pupils  who  take  it. 
Located  adjoining  high  school,  and  some  attempts  will  be  made  to  avoid  social  segregation, 
but  the  vocational  aim  of  the  school  will  not  be  lost  sight  of.     It  prepares  primarily  for  indus- 
tries resting  on  wood  and  metal;   there  will  be  no  manual  training,  and  no  exercises  apart 
from  the  making  of  products.     Academic  work  based  on  the  concrete  or  shop  work. 
Along  the  lines  of  productive  work  will  be  the  finishing  of  the  interior  of  the  building,  which 
is  yet  unfinished.     Practically  trained  men  will  give  shop  work,  and  in  some  cases  at  least, 
related  technical  work.     The  school  to  receive  one-third  of  its  support  from  the  state,  and 
it  is  hoped  eventually  more.     Its  management  is  under  the  high-school  committee  of  the 
local  board,  designated  for  this  purpose  by  the  Council.     The  school  will  aim  to  prepare 
for  the  better  class  of  artisan  work. 

5.  Rochester  Factory  Schools.      The  first  school  in  the  scheme  was  for  boys  from 
fourteen  years  of  age  who  were  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades,  and  who  were 
manifestly  of  a  mechanical  turn  of  mind.     A  two-story  building  was  set  apart  for  the  school, 
the  entire  lower  floor  being  equipped  for  shopwork,  the  upper  floor  for  academic  studies 
related  to  the  vocational  work.     The  weekly  program  is  evenly  divided  between  shop  and 
academic  work  (shop,  fifteen  hours;   mathematics,  four  hours;   drawing,  five  hours;    Eng- 
lish and  spelling,  five  hours;  and  industrial  history,  one  and  one-quarter  hours),  but  almost 
all  the  academic  work  is  based  on  industrial  conditions  or  needs. 

The  lines  at  present  mapped  out  (April,   1909)  are:    (a)  elementary  woodworking, 


8o  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

(6)  advanced  woodworking,   (c)   elementary  mechanical  and  electrical  work;    and  (d) 
advanced  mechanical  and  electrical  work. 

School  is  held  six  days  each  week,  on  five  of  which  the  hours  are  from  8:30  to  3,  with 
half  an  hour  intermission.  The  products  of  the  woodworking  shop  are  to  be  usable  and 
at  present  are  supplied  to  the  schools  of  Rochester.  Most  of  the  teachers  have  had  prac- 
tical experience  as  mechanics  or  workers  in  other  lines.  The  local  management  of  the 
school  is  under  the  Board  of  Education. 

6.  Intermediate  Industrial  School  of  Albany,  N.  Y.     This  school  plans  to  take  two 
years  of  the  elementary  period,  and  two  years  beyond,  children  entering  at  or  about  thirteen 
to  fourteen.     The  work  of  the  first  two  years,  as  proposed,  is  about  two-thirds  vocational — 
technical  and  concrete;  and  one-third  general — geography,  history,  literature  and  composi- 
tion and  civics.     Mathematics  and  drawing  are  taught  with  regard  to  vocational  uses,  hence 
are  described  as  technical  subjects.     Part  of  concrete  work  is  varied  so  as  to  form,  at  option, 
beginnings  of  training  for  the  printing,  or  leather-working,  or  woodworking,  or  metal- 
working  occupations.     But  so  far,  in  the  last  two  years,  the  courses  seem  to  plan  mostly 
wood  and  metal-working  callings  for  boys,  and  textile  industries  and  household  arts  for 
girls. 

7.  Fitchburg  High  School,  co-operative  work.     First  year  is  spent  wholly  in  school, 
remaining  three  years  have  program  in  which  each  pupil  takes  alternate  weeks  in  school 
and  in  shops.     Boy  is  paid  for  shop  work  at  from  ten  to  twelve  and  a  half  cents  per  hour. 
School  work  is  English,  current  events,  commercial  geography,  civics  and  American  his- 
tory, and  technical  subjects  (mathematics,  drawing,  physics,  chemistry,  mechanism  of 
machines,  etc.).     An  arrangement  by  which  boys  are  employed  in  pairs,  and  by  which 
on  Saturday  the  then  shop  boy  locates  his  successor  for  the  next  week  in  the  work,  tends 
to  preserve  the  interests  of  employers. 

8.  Other  schools.     A  variety  of  private  or  philanthropic  schools  offer  suggestions  for 
this  work.     The  Hebrew  Technical  School  for  Girls  in  New  York,  deals  with  girls  gradu- 
ated from  the  elementary  schools,  and  has  courses  two  years  in  length.     Its  commercial 
courses  are  most  popular,  but  its  "technical  courses"  leading  to  textile  occupations  are 
successful  examples  of  what  may  be  accomplished  in  two  years.     The  program  is  not  limited 
to  vocational  work,  cultural  subjects  receiving  attention.     Schools  of  the  type  of  the  Wil- 
merding  in  San  Francisco  are  suggestive  as  to  types  of  work,  but  the  majority  of  the  students 
in  such  schools  are  above  the  age  of  sixteen  and  they  consequently  do  not  represent  methods 
most  suitable  for  younger  pupils. 

Three-year  technical  courses  are  found  in  some  of  the  high  schools  of  New  York  City, 
while  the  Washington  Irving  is  exclusively  a  technical  and  commercial  school  for  girls. 
Here  a  considerable  part  of  the  program  is  vocational,  and  toward  the  last  its  work  special- 
izes somewhat.  But  a  description  of  its  aim  properly  belongs  elsewhere. 


III.     REPORT    OF    SUBCOMMITTEE    ON    INDUSTRIAL 
AND    TECHNICAL    EDUCATION    IN    THE 

SECONDARY  SCHOOL 

The  committee  has  endeavored  to  study  the  problems  of  industrial  and 
technical  education  in  secondary  schools: 

1.  By  ascertaining  as  thoroly  as  possible  the  needs  and  requirements  for 
secondary  and  technical  education. 

2.  By  collecting  data  regarding  methods  of  instruction  and  the  practices 
of  existing  schools  within  this  field,  and  information  regarding  the  occupations 
and  careers  of  their  graduates. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         81 

3.  By  collecting  opinions  as  to  the  following  points:    notably  regarding 
the  extent  to  which  the  technical  courses  and  the  academic  work  of  the  schools 
should  be  made  more  directly  vocational;  whether  the  time  at  present  allowed 
to  handwork  is  sufficient;  whether  the  results  are  satisfactory;   the  extent  to 
which  close  correlation  is  practiced  thru  the  entire  school;    and  whether 
vocational  work  can  best  be  done  in  existing  schools  or  in  separate  schools. 

4.  By  collecting  views  on  ways  and  means  of  making  the  existing  schools 
and  their  equipment  more  serviceable  to  the  public. 

5.  By  inquiring  into  the  needs  of  girls  as  well  as  of  boys. 

6.  By  collecting  evidence  regarding  the  demand  for  evening  work. 

DEFINITIONS 

From  careful  analysis  of  the  existing  practices  in  secondary,  industrial, 
and  technical  schools,  and  of  the  needs  of  this  field  of  education,  as  evidenced 
by  the  testimony  and  expressions  of  opinion  from  a  great  number  of  educators, 
the  committee  has  formulated  the  following  definitions  of  three  types  of  schools: 

A.  The  manual-training  high  school,  or  the  manual-training  school,  is  a 
school  of  secondary  grade  in  which  a  greater  or  less  amount  of  handwork  is 
included  in  the  curriculum  and  in  which  the  greater  part  of  the  academic 
instruction  is  similar  to  that  found  in  other  high  school  and  college-preparatory 
schools,  neither  the  manual  nor  the  academic  instruction  being  especially 
planned  to  be  of  direct  vocational  service. 

B.  The  secondary  technical  school,  or  the  technical  high  school,  is  a  school 
of  secondary  grade  having  the  distinct  purpose  of  preparing  its  pupils  for 
industrial  leadership — that  is,  for  positions  in  industrial  life  requiring  skill  and 
technical  knowledge  and  of  greater  importance  and  responsibility  than  those 
of  the  skilled  mechanics.     In  such  a  school  the  instruction  deals  not  only  with 
the  important  manual  operations,  but  also  with  those  principles  of  science  and 
mathematics  and  their  direct  applications  to  industrial  work  that  will  help  to 
prepare  the  student  for  successfully  mastering  the  more  fundamental  processes 
and  problems  of  those  groups  of  industries  which  the  school  is  designed  to  reach. 

C.  The  trade  school  and  the  preparatory  trade  school  are  schools  which  have, 
for  their  definite  purpose  the  preparing  of  boys  or  girls  for  entrance  to  the 
skilled  mechanical  trades  and  which  deal  with  their  pupils  during  a  briefer 
course  and  allow  for  earlier  preparation  for  practical  work  than  the  technical 
high   school.     Such   schools  place   their  greatest  emphasis  upon   practical 
handwork  instruction  under   conditions   resembling    as   closely  as  possible 
those  prevailing  in  commercial  practice.     Such  schools  relate  the  academic 
instruction  at  every  point  closely  to  the  practical  work,  and  include  little  that 
is  not  of  direct  bearing  on  trade  work. 

CONCLUSIONS 

As  a  summary  of  its  investigations,  the  committee  submits  the  following 
conclusions: 

i.  From  a  study  of  the  data  obtained  regarding  existing  practice,  it  is 


82  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

apparent  that,  with  a  few  notable  exceptions,  practically  all  of  the  existing 
industrial  and  technical  high  schools  now  operating  in  the  United  States  as 
parts  of  the  public-school  system,  should  be  classified  as  manual-training 
high  schools. 

2.  From  the  evidence  obtained,  it  is  very  clear  that  these  manual-training 
schools  are  giving  a  very  useful  and  highly  important  service. 

3.  It  is  also  clear  from  an  analysis  of  the  data  obtained,  that  these  manual- 
training  high  schools,  as  a  rule,  do  not  in  any  degree  cover  the  field  or  accom- 
plish the  purpose  of  either  the  secondary  technical  high  school  or  the  trade 
school. 

4.  At  the  present  time,  by  far  the  great  majority  of  manual-training  high 
schools — practically  all  of  them,  notwithstanding  the  distinction  in  name — 
differ  in  no  important  educational  particular  from  the  other  high  schools  in 
the  United  States;   they  admit  pupils  of  the  same  general  type,  of  the  same 
age,  and  of  the  same  preparatory  training.     These  schools  aim  to  develop  the 
same  type  of  intelligence,  the  same  habits  of  thought,  and  the  same  kinds  of 
ability  as  do  the  other  high  schools;  and  their  graduates  are  found  in  the  same 
wide  variety  of  occupations.     While  the  subjects  taught  are  not  identical,  the 
manual-training  schools  are  nevertheless  essentially  schools  of  the  college- 
preparatory  type  in  which  the  instruction,  mechanical  as  well  as  academic, 
aims  to  provide  the  mental  equipment  of  the  kind  required  of  those  who  would 
continue  their  studies  in  higher  institutions.     All  of  the  work,  as  a  rule,  is 
measured  by  college-preparatory  standards.     The  fundamental  aim  of  these 
schools  is  a  general  training,  and  specific  training  for  industrial  occupations 
is  incidental.     In  filling  this  function,  these  schools  are  serving  a  useful  pur- 
pose in  that  they  offer  a  larger  variety  of  means  by  which  pupils  who  are  capa- 
ble of  higher  study  can  obtain  intellectual  training  and  preparation  for  higher 
institutions  thru  subjects  which  are  congenial  and  adapted  to  their  tastes. 
Important  as  this  function  is,  the  committee  believes  that  the  evidence  which 
it  has  collected  makes  it  entirely  clear  that  the  field  occupied  by  the  manual- 
training  school  is  entirely  distinct  and  different  from  the  field  to  be  occupied 
by  the  secondary  technical  school  on  the  one  hand  and  the  trade  school  on  the 
other. 

5.  The  evidence  shows  that  there  are  very  many  children  who  should  be, 
by  their  school  influence,  directed  toward  industrial  life  and  prepared  for  some 
sort  of  efficient  service  in  it. 

6.  The  committee  has  obtained  from  a  great  variety  of  sources  what  appears 
to  it  almost  overwhelming  evidence  of  the  very  great,  in  fact,  imperative,  need 
of  both  secondary  technical  schools  and  trade  and  preparatory  trade  schools, 
if  all  of  the  youth  of  the  land  are  to  be  served  with  anything  approaching  equal 
educational  opportunities. 

7.  The  secondary  technical  school,  or  technical  high  school,  should  have 
for  its  main  object  the  preparation  of  its  pupils  for  efficiency  in  a  large  group 
of  important  positions  in  industrial  life.     Its  aim  is  to  cultivate  industrial 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL          83 

intelligence  and  those  qualities  which  are  essential  for  efficient  industrial 
leadership  rather  than  abstract  reasoning  power.  It  differs  from  the  manual- 
training  high  school  in  the  following  important  particulars: 

a)  Pupils  are  encouraged  to  enter  technical  high  schools  with  a  definite 
purpose  of  preparing  for  industrial  careers. 

&)  It  frankly  and  definitely  abandons  all  traditional  college-preparatory 
work. 

c)  The  time  now  devoted  to  foreign  languages  is  given  to  more  thoro 
training  in  English,  industrial  history,  and  economics,  and  such  principles  and 
applications  of  science  as  are  likely  to  be  useful  in  an  industrial  career. 

d)  There  is  very  little  instruction  in  pure  mathematics  or  pure  science, 
but  instead,  a  large  amount  of  time  is  given  to  applied  mathematics  and  applied 
science,  all  of  which  is  closely  related  to  the  practical  work  of  the  course. 

e)  As  far  as  possible,  all  of  the  instruction,  whether  in  English,  history, 
economics,  mathematics,  or  science;  whether  in  classroom,  shop,  or  laboratory, 
is  so  designed  as  to  be  directly  usable  in  the  kind  of  occupations  in  which  the 
graduates  of  the  school  will  naturally  seek  employment. 

/)  There  is  the  closest  possible  correlation  between  the  branches  taught 
in  the  school. 

g)  Such  schools  will  necessarily  take  on  varying  forms  in  different  localities, 
since  the  needs  of  the  community  must,  to  a  large  degree,  determine  their 
educational  procedure. 

8.  From  the  evidence  which  the  committee  has  obtained,  it  is  clear  that 
boys  who  enter  mechanical  trades,  almost  without  exception,  leave  the  public 
schools  before  graduating  from  the  grammar  school.  It  should  be  recognized 
therefore  that  the  beginnings  of  trade  education,  if  such  education  is  to  articu- 
late with  our  present  school  system,  must  be  had  in  schools  that  will  draw  their 
pupils  largely,  if  not  entirely,  from  the  class  of  boys  who  have  not  graduated 
from  elementary  schools.  Such  schools  (intermediate  industrial  or  prepara- 
tory trade  schools)  cannot  therefore  be  really  parallel  with  existing  high  schools. 
In  order  to  prevent  possible  misunderstanding  by  pupils  or  the  public,  the 
intermediate  industrial  school  should  be  frankly  recognized  as  independent 
in  its  requirements  for  admission  and  in  its  courses  of  study.  Its  courses  of 
instruction  must  be  short.  This  is  essential  if  such  schools  are  to  come  within 
the  economic  possibilities  of  boys  and  girls  who  will  follow  manufacturing 
•trades,  and  only  such  pupils  should  be  admitted  as  can  satisfy  the  principal 
of  the  school  that  they  are  the  right  kind  of  material  out  of  which  to  make  good 
workmen,  and  are  likely  to  spend  their  life  in  mechanical  work. 

The  courses  of  study  for  this  type  of  school  must  always  be  sufficiently 
intensive  on  the  vocational  side  to  give  them  the  necessary  economic  value 
while  at  the  same  time  the  instruction  should  be  suited  to  both  the  mental  and 
the  physical  capacities  of  pupils  from  fourteen  to  sixteen  years  of  age.  There 
should  be  in  the  curriculum,  therefore,  nothing  that  is  not  of  direct  assistance 
for  preparing  pupils  for  work  in  the  industries.  Such  mechanical  drawing, 


84  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

mathematics,  applications  of  elementary  science  and  English  as  are  necessary, 
should  be  given  with  the  direct  purpose  of  increasing  efficiency  in  the  more 
concrete  and  practical  parts  of  the  course.  In  other  words,  the  spirit  and 
the  method  of  the  shop  should  be  carried  as  far  as  possible  into  all  of  the 
instruction  given  in  the  school. 

Beyond  this  point  (sixteen  years  of  age)  comes  the  possibility  of  true  trade 
schools  in  the  sense  of  school  training  as  a  partial  substitution  for  apprentice- 
ship or  the  learning  of  a  trade  in  commercial  practice.  Whether  or  not  these 
last  schools  will,  in  the  future,  become  important  factors  in  training  large  num- 
bers of  industrial  workers,  and  whether  or  not  they  will  become  recognized  as 
a  proper  element  in  the  American  public-school  system,  it  is  clear  that  their 
aim  must  be  to  impart  the  maximum  of  specialized  skill  and  technical  knowl- 
edge in  the  minimum  of  time.  In  order  that  it  may  be  economically  possible 
for  the  future  workman  to  attend  such  schools,  their  courses  must  be  highly 
specialized  and  the  instruction  must  concentrate  upon  the  development  of 
skill  and  knowledge  of  direct  practical  bearing. 

9.  The  evidence  collected  by  the  committee  shows  an  urgent  need  for  even- 
ing trade  and  technical  classes  for  bettering  the  opportunities  of  men  and 
women  already  employed  in  industrial  occupations  during  the  day.     The 
committee  believes  that  one  of  the  most  important  services  which  can  be  ren- 
dered by  existing  schools  that  have  shop  and  laboratory  facilities,  is  to  extend 
the  use  of  such  equipment  thru  practical  courses  of  evening  instruction. 

10.  The  main  ideas  embodied  in  this  report  are  applicable  to  girls  as  well 
as  to  boys. 

11.  The  problem  of  secondary  industrial  and  technical  education  calls 
fundamentally  for  a  clear  distinction  between  elementary   and  secondary 
education  which  shall  take  account  of  the  significant  differences  of  children 
in  economic  resources,  and  in  the  interests  and  aptitudes  that  appear  before 
the  end  of  the  present  period  of  elementary  education.     Such  a  distinction 
points  to  the  end  of  the  sixth  year  of  school  as  the  appropriate  beginning  of 
secondary,  that  is  differentiated  education;  it  does  not  in  any  sense  contem- 
plate a  six-year  course  as  the  maximum  provision  or  requirement  for  any  group 
of  children. 

I.  The  subcommittee  sent  letters  to  prominent  schoolmen  thruout  the 
country — men  who  occupy  supervisory  positions  in  cities  carrying  on  technical 
work,  as  well  as  men  who  are  presiding  over  secondary  technical  schools; 
manual-training  schools,  and  industrial  schools — inquiring  whether  there  is 
need  for  investigating  the  spirit  and  purpose  of  secondary  industrial  and 
technical  education  and  for  formulating  a  more  definite  plan  for  future  ex- 
tension of  industrial  work  in  our  secondary  schools. 

One  superintendent  of  schools  writes  as  follows: 

I  believe  that  the  committee  should  formulate  a  definition  of  the  technical  high 
school,  perhaps  both  from  an  inclusive,  as  well  as  an  exclusive,  point  of  view.  At  the  Chicago 
meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  in  1909  a  number  of  superintendents 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         85 

expressed  a  desire  to  do  something  of  this  kind  but  were  in  doubt  as  to  what  to  do.  A 
strong  definition  of  what  constitutes  a  technical  high  school  will  go  a  good  way  toward 
clearing  the  atmosphere  and  will  be  helpful  in  pointing  out  the  way  to  those  who  do  not 
see  the  light.  If  this  is  to  be  the  primary  aim  of  this  report,  then  the  data  we  need  relates 
to  what  is  now  being  done  in  the  so-called  manual-training  high  schools,  with  reference 
to  kind  of  mechanical  work  offered,  the  proportionate  amount  of  time  devoted  to  it,  and 
the  groups  of  academic  studies  offered  with  their  relation  to  the  shop  activities — that  is 
to  say,  whether  the  academic  instruction  is  based  upon  the  requirements  of  the  shop  or 
whether  it  is  isolated  and  running  in  a  parallel  column. 

A  principal  of  a  large  manual-training  high  school  says: 
There  is  no  uniformity  in  schools  called  by  the  same  name;  no  uniformity  in  the  num- 
ber of  hours  devoted  to  shopwork  or  in  the  character  of  the  work.  My  own  experience, 
not  supported  by  inspection  of  every  such  school,  is  that  a  school  which  is  a  manual-training 
department  of  a  high  school  is  inferior  in  shopwork  and  drawing  to  what  might  be  called 
an  independent  manual-training  school,  such  as  the  Indianapolis  school.  Especially  is 
this  the  case  where  the  manual-training  department  has  been  added  to  the  older  academic 
department.  Where  the  principal  of  the  older  school  is  not  fully  in  sympathy  with  manual 
training  or,  if  in  sympathy,  does  not  fully  comprehend  the  movement,  the  result  is  fore- 
ordained. Here,  as  everywhere,  the  principal  makes  the  school. 

A  professor  of  education  in  a  university  writes: 

There  is  no  definitely  established  policy  with  reference  to  secondary  technical  instruc- 
tion in  any  section  of  the  country.  Educators  in  general  seem  to  be  vacillating  between 
two  extremes,  one  of  which  looks  toward  the  making  of  the  handworking  courses  purely 
vocational;  the  other  attempting  to  install  the  work  in  the  high  school  as  at  present  orga- 
nized without  materially  changing  the  present  status,  and  hence,  of  course,  making  it  merely 
an  adjunct  to  the  present  work.  In  the  latter  case,  which  is  by  far  the  more  prevalent, 
the  work  fails  to  be  as  satisfactory  as  it  ought  to  be,  largely  because  it  is  given  too  little 
attention  and  really  has  not  become  an  integral  part  of  the  school  work. 

The  dean  of  a  college  of  engineering  writes: 

We  ought  to  get  an  accurate  definition  of  what  we  are  trying  to  do.  If  the  manual- 
training  high  schools  are  trying  to  solve  the  problem  of  industrial  education,  they  ought 
to  say  so,  and  if  the  work  is  cultural,  they  ought  to  say  so;  at  least,  let  them  define  what 
they  are  attempting  to  accomplish.  If  the  technical  high  schools  are  trying  to  solve  the 
problem  of  industrial  education,  let  them  say  so.  If  they  are  training  men  for  colleges,  let 
them  make  a  definite  statement  that  they  are  not  training  men  for  the  industries.  So 
far  the  public-school  people  have  been  bowing  in  one  direction,  saying,  "  Lo,  our  work  is 
cultural,"  and  then  in  another,  saying,  "Lo,  our  work  is  industrial."  Really,  what  is  it  ? 

The  president  of  a  technical  college  who  has  made  a  careful  study  of  indus- 
trial work  in  secondary  schools  writes  as  follows: 

No  accurate  definition  has  ever  been  given  to  the  terms  "manual-training  high  school," 
"technical  high  school,"  etc.  These  names  generally  refer  to  high  schools  which  have, 
more  or  less,  manual-training  work  connected  with  them.  So  far  as  I  am  aware,  there  is 
no  uniformity  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  this  work,  altho  generally  these  schools  give 
mechanical  drawing,  turning,  pattern-makjng,  machine-shop  work,  forging,  and  in  some 
cases,  foundry  work.  Most  of  these  high  schools  are  of  the  regular  type  which  give  the 
usual  high-school  courses  and  fit  for  college;  in  addition,  they  give  more  or  less  manual- 
training  work.  There  is  nothing  to  distinguish  them  from  any  other  high  school  except 
that  they  do  give  a  little  of  this  practical  training.  There  is  need  of  formulating  some 
definition. 


86  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

II.  These  letters  are  typical  of  many  other  replies  and  clearly  show  that 
the  work  of  this  committee  is  warranted.  The  next  step  was  to  obtain,  by 
inquiry,  the  present  status  of  the  manual-training  high  school.  The  replies  to 
letters  sent  out  by  the  subcommittee  show  a  marked  variance  in  the  purpose 
and  methods  involved  in  these  schools.  The  original  manual-training  high 
school,  as  conceived  by  Dr.  Woodward,  Charles  H.  Ham,  and  Dr.  H.  H. 
Belfield,  has  been  duplicated  or  modified  in  many  cities  of  the  country.  A 
word  from  Dr.  Belfield  is  of  interest  at  this  point: 

There  was  the  desire  on  the  part  of  some  of  us,  to  offer  to  boys  what  was  called  a  more 
"practical"  education  than  that  afforded  by  the  ordinary  high  school,  while  avoiding  a 
trade  school,  to  give  the  boy  an  acquaintance  with  the  forces  and  conditions  of  modern  life, 
to  give  him  the  use  of  his  hands,  or,  as  Dr.  Woodward  phrased  it,  "to  put  the  whole  boy 
to  school."  Our  thought  implied  the  broadening,  not  narrowing,  of  the  school  curriculum. 
For  many  years  I  had  been  impressed  with  the  fact  that  the  high  school  and  the  academy 
fitted  a  boy  for  entrance  upon  professional  study  only;  that  as  comparatively  few  boys 
expected  to  enter  upon  professional  life,  very  few  boys  entered  the  high  school,  and  a  much 
smaller  number  graduated  therefrom.  I  thought  these  facts  showed  a  great  weakness  in 
the  public-school  system.  I  found  many  of  my  business  acquaintances  entertaining  the 
same  opinion,  but  I  failed  to  win  to  my  belief  any  of  my  school' friends.  Two  facts  are 
here  worthy  of  mention:  (i)  The  Commercial  Club  of  Chicago,  which  founded  the  Chicago 
Manual  Training  School,  was  composed  exclusively  of  business  men;  (2)  I  resigned  the 
principalship  of  the  Chicago  North  Division  High  School  to  become  director  of  the  proposed 
Chicago  Manual  Training  High  School,  against  the  advice  of  every  schoolmaster  friend  I 
had.  The  original  manual-training  school  was  designed  to  develop  all  of  the  boy's  powers 
— to  fit  him  for  life,  but  not  to  teach  him  a  trade.  One  hour  a  day  was  given  to  drawing, 
two  hours  a  day  to  shop  work,  every  day  in  the  school  year.  With  these  branches  were 
taught,  what  we  considered  the  fundamental  studies  of  a  high-school  course — English, 
with  Latin  and  French  elective;  mathematics,  including  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry  and  for  those  able  to  take  them,  analytical  and  descriptive  geometry;  physiol- 
ogy, physics,  chemistry,  history,  government,  and  political  economy.  The  course  (I  speak 
now  particularly  of  the  Chicago  school)  was  not  originally  designed  to  fit  for  college,  but, 
to  my  surprise,  I  found  that  about  50  per  cent,  of  my  graduates,  beginning  with  my  first 
class  (1886)  entered  college,  the  greater  part  of  this  50  per  cent,  going  to  technological 
schools — the  Massachusetts  Institute,  Sibley  College,  Michigan,  Purdue,  etc.  Most  of 
the  other  half  went  directly  into  business.  Very  few  entered  a  shop,  and  these,  by  reason 
of  their  intelligence,  rose  at  once  to  be  foremen,  managers,  etc.  None,  so  far  as  I  could 
learn,  remained  long  at  the  bench.  The  academic  and  shop  courses  were  co-ordinated  as 
far  as  possible,  and  it  is  astonishing  how  much  connection  skillful  instructors  can  find  or 
make  between  shop,  laboratory,  and  classroom  work.  The  school  always  seemed  to  me 
to  be  a  unit.  That  the  scholarship  was,  to  say  the  least,  not  injured  by  the  shopwork  is 
clearly  shown  by  these  facts:  graduates  of  the  school  entered,  with  ease,  the  best  technologi- 
cal schools  in  the  country,  maintained  themselves  with  ease,  and  graduated  with  credit, 
frequently  with  honor.  The  shopwork  was  always  given  credit  in  the  higher  schools.  In 
some  the  boys  were  excused  entirely  from  shopwork.  Credit  was  also  given  for  drawing, 
so  that  it  was  not  unusual  for  the  four-year  course  of  the  technological  school  to  be  com- 
pleted in  three  years.  The  comparatively  small  number  of  graduates  who  enjoyed  scien- 
tific, literary,  and  classical  courses  in  Harvard,  Yale,  Princeton,  and  other  institutions  also 
maintained  themselves.  It  was  to  satisfy  such  that  Greek  was  introduced  as  an  elective 
in  the  Chicago  school. 

This  bit  of  personal  history  from  an  authority  such  as  Dr.  Belfield,  points 
out  the  natural  development  which  has  taken  place  in  the  manual-training 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL          87 

high-school  movement.  At  the  present  time  some  of  these  schools  fit  for  all 
colleges;  some  limit  themselves  to  preparation  for  technical  colleges;  some 
have  strong  commercial  courses;  and  some  correlate  their  shopwork  with  the 
academic  work.  Evidently  all  of  them  attempt  to  give  their  pupils  an  all- 
round  or  symmetrical  education  by  means  of  a  joining  of  the  humanities  with 
handworking  courses.  They  attempt  to  cultivate  dexterity  of  hand  and  eye 
along  with  scholarship  and  mental  acumen. 

The  investigation  of  Professor  Ballou,  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati, 
brings  out  the  variety  of  practice  in  regard  to  manual  training  in  the  high  school. 
This  investigation  shows  that  there  is  no  uniformity,  and  almost  an  entire 
lack  of  definite  aim  in  the  relationship  between  the  manual-training  course  and 
the  rest  of  the  school  work.  The  committee  quotes  the  following  from  the 
results  of  his  investigation : 

There  are  33  cities  which  give  the  subject,  of  manual-training  one  and  a  half  hours  per 
week.  There  are  also  33  cities  which  give  three  hours  to  this  subject.  In  the  first  case 
a  double  period  is  given,  and  in  the  second,  of  course,  two  double  periods.  There  are 
25  cities  which  devote  two  hours  to  the  subject  and  20  cities  that  give  four  hours  a  week. 
Those  that  allot  to  the  subject  two  and  a  half  hours  are  eleven  in  number.  Those  that 
give  the  subject  twice  as  much  time,  or  five  hours  per  week,  are  twelve  in  number.  The 
number  of  cities  that  give  seven  hours  per  week  is  25,  which  means  about  five  one-and-a-half 
periods,  or  five  times  as  much  time  as  the  33  cities  that  give  it  one  and  a  half  hours.  Out 
of  207  cities  that  offer  manual  training  in  the  high  school,  159  of  them  permit  .the  students 
to  elect  such  a  course.  In  other  words,  77  per  cent,  of  the  cities  permit  the  students  to 
elect  the  subject  of  manual  training. 

Nearly  every  reply  brought  out  the  point  that  the  manual-training  high 
school  has  no  clearly  defined  status;  and  that  the  definitions  of  the  different 
types  of  schools  are  largely  a  matter  of  personal  opinion.  The  shortest  defini- 
tion of  a  "real  manual-training  high  school"  which  was  given  to  the  committee 
was  the  following:  "A  high  school  with  a  course  in  manual  training  in  lieu  of 
Latin  and  Greek."  A  number  of  schoolmen  reported  a  manual- training 
high  school  as  being  a  school  in  which  manual  training  is  intended  as  an  aid 
in  general  development;  that  is,  that  the  handwork  is  virtually  a  department 
of  an  academic  high  school  just  as  Latin  is  a  department  in  such  a  school; 
that  five  double  periods  per  week  are  commonly  devoted  to  this  work,  three  of 
which  are  usually  given  to  shopwork  and  two  to  mechanical  drawing:  and 
that  the  aim  is  not  so  much  to  develop  technical  skill  as  to  give  acquaintance 
with  materials  and  the"  use  of  tools,  the  handwork  being  regarded  primarily 
as  a  training  of  the  motor  side  of  the  student  and  as  furnishing  general  infor- 
mation of  a  practical  nature.  In  brief,  the  manual-training  high  school,  in 
the  minds  of  these  men,  is  one  in  which  shopwork  and  drawing  are  offered 
mainly  for  the  purpose  of  supplementing  other  studies  for  the  so-called  cul- 
tural purposes  of  education. 

Such  a  manual-training  high  school  does  not  differ  radically  from  the 
regular  high  school  with  a  manual-training  department,  for  both  are  simply 
secondary  schools  in  which  the  curriculum  combines  various  elements  of 
manual  and  academic  work  primarily  for  purposes  of  general  training. 


88  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

The  principal  of  one  of  the  largest  manual-training  high  schools  in  the 
country  writes: 

Our  school  is  claiming  to  make  pupils  better  citizens,  to  open  up  to  its  graduates 
opportunities  that  would  not  be  possible  without  the  training  they  get.  The  academic 
studies,  with  the  exception  of  Latin  and  Greek,  are  the  same  as  those  given  in  any  high 
school,  and  the  manual  training  is  given  for  educational  and  disciplinary  purposes  only. 

He  agrees  with  another  principal,  who  states  that 

manual  training  makes  pupils  better  citizens;  that  the  educational  work  of  the  school  is 
of  the  first  order;  that  it  is  not,  in  any  sense,  a  technical  high  school,  and  that  it  supplies 
the  higher  education  demanded  by  those  who  are  preparing  for  advanced  technical 
or  university  work. 

It  is  of  interest  to  compare  these  statements  with  those  which  come  later  when 
the  question  of  technical  high  schools  is  considered. 

A  fundamental  difficulty  in  the  situation  seems  to  be  that  many  schoolmen 
believe  that  every  high  school  should  have  some  manual  training  and  that 
every  manual-training  high  school  should  prepare  for  college,  the  result  being 
that  the  layman  is  confused  as  to  the  part  that  the  manual- training  high  school 
plays  in  the  preparation  for  industrial  vocations. 

As  a  whole  the  replies  received  by  the  committee  seem  clearly  to  indicate 
that  the  manual- training  high  school  is  ordinarily  little  more  than  a  regular 
high  school  with  a  manual- training  department.  As  one  writer  states  it: 

I  have  come  to  be  of  the  opinion  that  most  of  these  schools  were  started  as  a  sop  to  the 
demand  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  more  practical  instruction  in  the  public-school  system. 
The  presence  of  machinery  in  a  school  looks  practical,  and  that  is  about  as  far  as  it  goes. 
While  I  can  see  a  cultural  value  in  manual  training,  I  do  not  think  it  was  ever  intended  to 
meet  the  call  for  industrial  training,  and  if  it  was,  it  has  certainly  fizzled  miserably.  My 
own  observation  leads  me  to  believe  that  these  schools  turn  out  people  who  disdain  to  be 
mechanics  and  who  would  rather  be  inferior  draughtsmen. 

Another  of  the  replies  has  the  following: 

The  manual-training  high  schools  are  too  elaborate,  too  expensive,  in  a  way,  too 
dilettante,  to  lead  to  anything  other  than  one  of  the  industrial  professions.  Often  they  do 
not  even  prepare  for  training  in  one  of  these.  They  are  much  more  like  schools  than  shops, 
whereas  they  should  be  more  like  shops  than  schools.  In  buildings  that  have  nothing  of 
the  appearance  of  the  shop,  they  have  machinery,  tools,  equipment,  atmosphere,  theory, 
and  practice,  which  differentiate  them  widely  from  the  shop.  They  are  managed  by  men 
who  are  more  teachers  than  workmen,  when  they  should  be  managed  by  men  who  are,  at 
least  quite  as  much  workmen  as  teachers.  Often  the  machinery  and  tools  make  an  inter- 
esting show  without  being  needed  or  effectually  used,  because  there  is  not  a  skilled  work- 
man to  use  them.  Many  a  time  a  principal  or  teacher  pleads  for  an  appropriation  with 
which  to  buy  machinery,  tools,  and  other  equipment,  without  any  definite  theory  or  plan 
or  end  in  view.  If  refused,  he  would  feel  outraged  and  become  a  martyr.  If  given  the 
money  he  studies  catalogues  and  sees  agents  for  the  purpose  of  spending  the  money  in 
ways  that  will  look  well  and  make  an  impression  upon  the  people  who  always  love  an  object- 
lesson  and  are  often  susceptible  and  superficial  about  industrial  training.  Real  tradesmen 
and  workmen  discriminate,  and  they  are  amused  by  what  they  see.  There  is  not  enough 
substantial  result  to  it.  I  know  very  well  that  this  is  not  always  true,  but  quite  as  well  that 
it  is  often  true.  Enthusiastic  advocates  of  manual  training  in  high  schools  have  been 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         89 

content  to  rest  their  interest  in  it  upon  its  all-around  cultural  and  educational  value,  mean- 
ing thereby  its  value  to  intellectual  virility  and  energy,  rather  than  upon  the  fact  that  it 
would  make  a  more  skilled  craftsman  and  therefore  an  individual  of  more  character  and 
a  citizen  of  more  strength. 

The  letters  of  many  principals  of  secondary  schools  indicate  a  strong  belief 
in  the  value  of  manual  training.  Such  writers  hold  strenuously  that  training 
in  the  use  of  certain  tools  is  one  of  the  fundamental  procedures  in  education: 
that  the  square,  the  plane,  and  the  needle  lie  at  the  bottom  of  civilization: 
and  that  the  use  of  these  tools  affords  the  most  direct  and  rapid  means  for 
teaching  not  only  the  co-operation  of  eye  and  hand,  but  also  that  rapid  and 
ready  execution  of  ideas  which  marks  the  truly  efficient  man  or  woman.  Such 
writers  have  visions  of  a  system  of  secondary  education  so  correlated  with 
elementary  education  upon  the  one  hand  and  with  the  activities  of  life  upon 
the  other,  that  the  pupils  need  not  specialize  in  their  work ;  but  that  the  second- 
ary should  be  a  place  where  boys  and  girls  can  "find  themselves"  and  choose 
their  careers  with  intelligence.  They  would  not  have  special  schools  but  a 
system  of  general  schools  sending  their  pupils  out  into  life — some  into  trades, 
some  into  business,  and  some  on  to  college  and  the  professional  schools. 

The  breadth  and  scope  of  these  visions  of  schoolmen  have  resulted  in  great 
changes  in  the  secondary-school  program.  Many  commercial  and  industrial 
subjects  have  been  introduced.  Educational  procedure  in  our  high  schools 
is  in  a  more  unsettled  state  than  that  either  of  our  elementary  schools  or  of 
the  colleges.  The  high  school  seems  to  be  the  battling-ground  for  educators 
at  the  present  time,  and  the  elasticity  of  modern  secondary  courses  of  study 
has  made  possible  a  great  variety  of  educational  practice  relative  to  manual 
training  in  different  sections  of  the  country. 

There  seems  to  be  a  movement  on  foot  in  some  quarters  to  abolish  the  old- 
time  classical  high  school,  as  such,  and  to  introduce  general  manual -train  ing 
and  commercial  courses  in  all  high  schools.  In  some  large  cities  these  schools 
have  been  duplicated  on  the  district  plan  without  any  attempt  at  differentiation. 
This  viewpoint  is  expressed  in  a  letter  given  to  the  New  York  Board  of  Educa- 
tion by  the  Brooklyn  Educational  League,  viz.: 

We  can  no  longer  speak  of  a  uniform  course  of  study  for  all  high-school  students.  There 
are  at  least  three  distinct  kinds  of  work  that  should  be  supplied  by  high  schools  in  Brook- 
lyn today,  namely:  (a)  Commercial  courses  for  both  boys  and  girls;  (6)  industrial  courses 
for  boys  and  girls,  including  courses  to  fit  girls  for  homemaking,  nursing,  and  domestic 
occupations;  (c)  academic  courses,  including  work  preparatory  for  colleges  or  technical 
schools,  as  well  as  a  course  designed  especially  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who  will  enter  the 
training  school  and  teach  without  taking  a  college  course.  The  present  method  of  building 
special  schools  in  widely  separated  locations  results  in  great  educational  loss,  as  many 
students  choose  a  school  because  it  happens  to  be  nearer  or  because  their  friends  go  there, 
instead  of  choosing  the  school  best  fitted  to  their  needs.  In  such  cases  there  is  a  great 
waste  of  educational  expenditure.  The  present  method  of  offering  only  one  kind  of  work 
in  a  school  places  an  unnecessary  barrier  in  the  way  of  the  student's  changing  his  course 
when  he  discovers  a  change  in  his  aptitudes  or  his  opportunities.  The  grammar-school 
graduate  is  often  too  immature  to  make  wise  and  permanent  choice  of  the  kind  of  work  he 


90  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

should  follow  for  the  next  four  years.  Placing  only  one  kind  of  work  in  a  school  ignores 
the  fact  that  one  of  the  most  important  functions  of  education,  especially  of  high-school 
education,  is  to  encourage  the  student  to  discover  his  proper  vocation.  To  perform  this 
function,  the  different  kinds  of  work  must  be  accessible  and  each  must  receive  its  due 
measure  of  respect.  The  school  must  have  a  broad  and  liberal  spirit. 

A  similar  point  of  view  has  been  expressed  by  Eugene  Davenport,  dean  of 
the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of  Illinois,  who  writes: 

We  have  learned  that  education  must  be  adapted  somewhat  to  the  ends  in  view; 
that  as  civilization  advances  and  knowledge  accumulates,  there  must  be  many  courses  for 
many  men,  and  we  have  learned  too  that  there  is  by  nature  nothing  incompatible  between 
them,  because  higher  industrial  education  flourishes  nowhere  else  so  well  as  when  associated 
with  the  old-time  courses,  that  unique  and  modern  association  of  teaching  and  investigation 
that  is  designed  to  minister  to  all  the  needs,  industrial,  social,  economic,  and  artistic,  of 
a  rapidly  advancing  civilization.  There  is  no  conflict  between  the  classics  and  the  indus- 
tries, but  all  thinking  men  see  clearly  now  that  whether  the  education  be  classical  or  indus- 
trial, it  is,  alike  a  part  and  an  essential  part  of  the  successful  development  of  a  young,  strong, 
virile  race.  The  only  question  now  is  as  to  practical  methods  of  procedure.  There  is 
little  dispute  any  more  as  to  the  nature  of  courses  best  adapted  to  industrial  ends,  tho 
much  improvement  will  be  made  as  time  passes.  Academic  standards  and  educational 
values  are  being  set  and  the  future  of  industrial  education  is  assured,  whether  regarded  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  individual  or  that  of  the  industry.  The  only  real  question — and  it  is 
gigantic — is  whether,  and  to  what  extent,  industrial  courses  should  be  added  to  our  existing 
schools  or  whether  they  should  be  relegated  to  separate  institutions.  Of  one  fact  we  may 
rest  assured  at  the  outset,  and  that  is  that  industrial  education  is  with  us  to  stay.  The 
industrial  people  insist  upon  it  and  public  needs  demand  it.  We  can,  therefore,  find  a 
place  for  it  in  our  schools,  making  it  an  integral  part^of  our  system  of  universal  education, 
or  it  will  make  a  place  for  itself  and  a  system  of  its  own.  I  prefer  that  we  retain  the  unity 
and  integrity  of  our  educational  system  by  taking  into  our  schools  not  only  industrial  educa- 
tion but  all  other  forms  of  educational  necessity  that  are  now  felt  or  that  may  in  the  future 
arise,  to  the  end  that  all  interests  may  be  well  served,  and  that  too,  in  a  way  not  involving 
influences  that  tend  to  break  up  the  homogeneity  of  our  people,  but  above  all  preventing 
the  evolution  of  an  American  peasant  class.  Moreover,  the  strictly  vocational  courses 
succeed  nowhere  else  so  well  as  when  intimately  associated  with  the  non-vocational.  It 
adds  directness  and  initiative  to  the  cultural,  thus  turning  back  to  the  community  a  product 
whose  individuals  are  highly  schooled  in  specialized  activities  and  therefor  likely  to  succeed, 
yet  who  by  association  have  learned  to  be  broadly  sympathetic  with  all  activities  and  with 
all  classs  of  effective  people.  In  a  word,  I  would  see  the  policy  of  the  state  university  trans- 
ferred to  the  American  high  school,  to  the  end  that  this  most  representative  of  all  schools 
may  do  for  the  masses  what  the  university  is  doing  for  the  few. 

Many  schoolmen  who  are  deeply  concerned  with  the  problem  of  secondary 
industrial  and  technical  education  do  not  take  the  point  of  view  so  ably  pre- 
sented by  Professor  Davenport.  They  feel  that  there  is  a  conflict  within  the 
inner  life  of  the  present  high  school;  that  the  aim  and  organization  of  this 
school  were  designed  for  literary  purposes  and  that  the  aim  and  organization 
of  the  high  school  for  technical,  scientific,  and  commercial  purposes  are  so 
different  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  unite  these  aims  in  one  school.  They 
feel  that  the  modern  high  school  is  endeavoring  to  serve  several  interests, 
where  the  organization  was  created  solely  for  one,  viz.,  literary  education  foi 
the  professions.  Figuratively  speaking,  the  house  was  originally  built  to 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         91 

accommodate  one  family  whereas  it  is  now  proposed  that  it  be  extended  to 
hold  several  families,  each  one  of  which  requires  different  accommodations. 
Since  much  of  the  work  has  to  be  done  with  the  same  facilities,  which  are  not 
always  suitable  for  the  needs  of  all  these  families,  there  is  unavoidable  friction, 
loss  of  time,  and  weakening  of  forces. 

The  men  of  this  group  feel  that  there  should  be  distinct  differentiations  in 
secondary  education  and  that  each  school  should  have  its  own  line  of  work 
appropriate  to  the  special  demands  placed  upon  it.  The  field  of  secondary 
education,  they  urge,  is  becoming  so  large  and  its  influence  upon  national  life 
so  important  that  the  classical  or  literary  high  school  or  even  the  manual- 
training  high  school  is  no  longer  able  to  do  justice  to  the  full  demands 
of  secondary  industrial  and  technical  education. 

A  number  of  replies  indicate  a  strong  conviction  that  either  the  manual- 
training  high  school  should  be  organized  on  its  own  foundation  with  the  aca- 
demic work  related  to  the  technical  work  and  so  arranged  as  to  meet  the  voca- 
tional needs  of  the  students  taking  such  a  course,  or  that  communities  should 
establish  separate  schools  for  technical  education.  In  this  connection  James 
F.  McElroy,  of  the  Consolidated  Car  Heating  Company,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  writes: 

The  manual-training  high  schools  do  not  meet  the  requirements  imposed  by  actual 
industrial  conditions  first,  because  boys  must  enter  upon  their  life-work  in  the  industries 
before  a  course  in  the  high  school  can  be  completed;  second,  because  financial  conditions 
of  those  who  must  spend  their  lives  in  the  industries  of  the  country  make  it  impracticable 
for  the  great  majority  of  them  to  complete  the  manual-training  high  school  course;  third, 
because  the  work  of  the  manual -training  high  school  fits  men  better  for  foremen  than  for 
positions  as  mechanics. 

Mr.  McElroy  goes  on  to  state  that  instruction  in  these  schools  may  be  valuable 
but  it  is  of  a  higher  grade  than  that  required  for  the  great  majority  of  our 
laboring  class. 

Similarly  Mr.  Kruezpointer  states: 

The  manual-training  high  schools  train  their  pupils  away  from  the  shops  and  therefore 
do  not  reach  the  great  mass  of  those  who  are  to  make  their  living  as  practical  mechanics  and 
helpers.  In  quite  a  number  of  high  schools  manual  training  has  been  introduced,  but  it 
confines  itself  chiefly  to  woodwork  because  of  lack  of  funds  for  a  more  expensive  equipment 
and  lack  of  room.  What  is  done  goes  but  a  little  way  because  the  work  is  along  lines  of 
mechanical  dexterity  chiefly  and  the  drawing  and  academic  part  of  the  instruction  is 
cramped  for  time,  being  obliged  to  go  along  with  the  classical  course,  the  scientific  course, 
and  perhaps  some  other  course.  Moreover,  the  boy  who  goes  to  high  school  rarely  cares 
to  go  into  the  shop  as  an  ordinary  mechanic. 

After  careful  investigation  of  the  status  of  manual-training  high  schools 
and  manual  training  in  the  high  schools,  a  committee  of  the  Cleveland  Chamber 
of  Commerce  reported  in  1906  the  following: 

The  amount  of  manual  training  taught  in  the  regular  high  schools  in  the  city  is  so 
small  that  it  hardly  seems  wise  to  have  it  retained  after  the  technical  high  school  is  organ- 
ized. At  present  the  students  get  about  forty  hours  of  mechanical  drawing  per  year. 
We  understand  that  the  amount  of  time  given  to  it  is  one  hour  and  a  half  per  week  and  dur- 
ing this  time  the  student  must  get  out  his  drawing  materials  at  the  beginning  of  the  period 


92  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

and  put  them  away  at  the  end.  Very  little  can  be  learned  in  such  a  short  time.  The  same 
thing  can  be  said  in  regard  to  the  work  in  the  other  departments.  Students  who  really 
wish  a  manual-training  course  can  go  to  the  technical  high  school,  and  those  who  wish  to 
follow  courses  of  study  without  manual  training  can  be  accommodated  in  the  ordinary 
high  schools.  We  cannot  see  why  machinery  should  be  placed  in  so  many  high-school 
buildings  and  used  only  a  part  of  each  day.  It  should  be  possible  for  students  in  the  regu- 
lar high  schools  to  take  manual  training  during  the  evening  sessions. 

The  feeling  that  the  scope  and  purpose  of  the  manual-training  high  school 
should  be  changed  is  not  confined  to  men  directly  interested  in  the  technical 
side  of  education,  is  evident  from  the  following  excerpt  of  a  letter  from 
Dr.  Thomas  M.  Balliet,  of  New  York  University: 

As  for  a  manual-training  high  school,  which  differs  only  from  the  literary  and  com- 
mercial high  schools  in  that  it  has  somewhat  more  shopwork  and  perhaps  more  mechanical 
drawing  and  a  literary  course  less  extensive  than  the  first,  and  perhaps  a  less  specialized 
literary  course  than  the  second,  I  confess  I  see  no  use  for  it  in  the  future.  It  has  no  dis- 
tinctive aim  and  character.  In  such  a  school  there  is  so  great  a  lack  of  correlation  between 
the  academic  studies  and  the  shopwork  that  boys  and  girls  recite  together  in  their  academic- 
work  and  separately  only  in  their  strictly  technical  work.  Such  a  school  is  simply  a  literary 
high  school  with  a  somewhat  narrow  academic  course  and  with  a  little  more  shopwork. 
The  problem  before  us  is  to  transform  all  such  manual-training  high  schools  into  technical 
high  schools.  The  manual  training  of  a  technical  high  school  is  likely  to  be  fully  as  good, 
and,  I  should  say,  better,  than  the  manual  training  in  a  so-called  manual-training  high  school 
of  the  type  here  described.  Manual  training  does  not  lose  its  general  educational  value  but 
distinctly  gains  by  being  given  a  more  definite  industrial  bent  than  it  has  had  in  the  past. 

Professor  Chamberlain,  dean  of  the  Throop  Institute  at  Pasadena,  Cal., 
writes: 

A  manual-training  school  should  offer  manual  training  as  an  intrinsic  part  of  the  course 
of  study  and  not  as  an  adjunct.  Again,  this  manual  training  is  in  one  sense  the  foundation 
element,  and  the  manual-training  high  school  must  come  more  and  more  to  industrialize 
its  manual  training.  In  other  words,  it  must  consider  the  trades  element  from  the  educa- 
tional point  of  view.  In  my  opinion,  the  committee  can  do  a  good  work  in  showing  that 
there  is  a  place  for  a  school  that  shall  lie  in  its  academic  side  between  the  grades  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  upper  years  of  the  high  school  on  the  other.  It  should  teach  the  industries 
in  the  form  of  trades  and  from  the  technical  point  of  view,  always  in  the  light  of  educational 
theory.  These  industrial  forms  of  education  should  be  taught  not  as  adjuncts  but  as  part 
and  parcel  of  the  academic  side,  so  that  mathematics,  English,  science,  history,  and  other 
traditional  lines  of  school  work  will  be  seen  in  their  relations  to  the  important  aspects  of 
industry 

III.  It  is  commonly  assumed  that  there  is  a  correlation  between  the  shop- 
work  and  the  academic  work  in  the  manual-training  high  school.  Such  is  not 
generally  the  case  if  judgment  is  to  be  based  upon  the  answers  received  to  the 
inquiries  on  this  point.  A  careful  study  of  the  work  of  these  schools  shows 
that  they  give  two  kinds  of  courses — one  academic  and  the  other  mechanical; 
and  that  there  is  little  relation  between  the  technical  and  academic  work.  The 
language  work,  whether  it  be  Latin,  German,  French,  or  English,  is  the  same 
for  the  " manual  training"  student  as  it  is  for  the  "classical"  student.  The 
mathematics  is  the  same  for  all.  The  same  is  true  of  the  history  and  the 
science  work.  In  short,  the  prevailing  custom  in  these  schools  is  to  conduct 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         93 

the  academic  work  and  technical  work  as  isolated  and  parallel  courses.  A 
number  of  principals  have  written  that  they  regret  that  the  academic  training 
does  not  take  its  cue  from  the  requirements  of  the  shop.  The  principal  of 
one  of  the  largest  high  schools  in  the  country  acknowledges  that  the  academic 
studies  are  in  no  way  treated  differently  for  students  who  take  the  manual- 
training  course  than  for  those  who  do  not  take  it;  that  there  is  no  relation 
between  the  manual-training  work  and  its  corresponding  academic  work,  such 
as  mathematics,  science,  language,  etc.  He  states  that  the  latter  are  isolated 
and  arranged  without  reference  to  the  manual- training  work  done  by  the  pupils 
— that  his  school  is  one  preparing  for  college ;  and  that  a  student  is  expected 
to  do  his  college-preparatory  work  in  addition  to  his  manual  training.  In  a 
word,  as  he  states  it,  "the  manual  work  does  not  dominate  or  guide  the  general 
policies  of  the  school  in  its  general  studies."  Another  principal  takes  a  pessi- 
mistic point  of  view  in  that  he  says: 

I  do  not  believe  the  subjects  can  be  successfully  correlated  without  considerable  addi- 
tional effort  in  that  direction,  not  by  teachers  alone  but  primarily  by  the  high -school  offi- 
cials and  the  makers  of  textbooks.  There  is  too  much  chaff  and  not  enough  wheat  in 
our  secondary  textbooks  to  enable  them  to  offer  the  nourishment  necessary  in  bringing 
about  a  healthy  and  active  state  of  mind  in  the  manual-training  course. 

Still  another  principal  writes  that 

the  two  departments  (manual  and  academic)  are  run  on  parallel  lines  rather  than  by  corre- 
lating the  one  with  the  other.  Even  where  there  is  some  talk  of  definite  relationship  one 
finds  that  this  relationship  is  on  paper  rather  than  in  fact.  In  practically  no  manual- 
training  course  that  I  am  familiar  with  does  any  consistent  relation  exist  between  the  treat- 
ment of  these  school  subjects  and  the  shop  activity. 

In  sharp  contrast  to  these  statements  a  few  replies  are  given  expressing  a 
different  point  of  view. 

In  organizing  the  Technical  High  School  in  Cleveland,  Dr.  Charles  S.  Howe, 
president  of  a  special  committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce,  recommended: 

That  there  be  three  recitation  periods  a  day  along  three  different  lines  of  work:  one 
line  of  mathematics,  one  line  of  science,  one  line  of  language.  In  mathematics,  that  prac- 
tical arithmetic,  algebra,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  mensuration,  and  bookkeeping  be 
taught.  All  of  these  -subjects  are  to  be  taught  with  special  reference  to  their 
practical  application. 

Professor  Barney,  of  the  Hebrew  Technical  Institute  of  New  York  City, 
writes: 

The  compositions  and  essays  in  the  English  department  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
the  work  in  hand  and  are  therefore  written  with  interest  and  earnestness.  The  extensive 
work  in  the  drawing  departments  incidentally  enables  the  pupil  to  illustrate  most  of  the 
written  work,  and  this  in  itself  helps  to  increase  the  interest.  In  the  department  of  physics 
and  applied  electricity,  certain  definite  experiments  and  measurements  have  to  be  made 
from  a  collection  of  blue-printed  descriptions  and  problems.  These  occasion  extensive 
collateral  reading  and  study  and  carefully  kept  notebooks  are  required. 

IV.  The  subject  of  preparation  for  college  in  manual-training  high  schools 
was  next  considered:  It  was  found  that  the  majority  of  manual-training  high 


94  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


schools  fit  for  the  same  colleges  for  which  the  general  high  schools  prepare. 
The  record  of  the  graduates  substantiates  this  point  and  shows  that  in  this 
respect  the  manual-training  high  schools  do  not  differ  from  other  secondary 
schools.  The  consensus  of  opinion,  however,  indicates  a  strong  conviction  that 
it  is  unwise  to  fit  students  for  all  types  of  colleges  in  manual-training  high  schools 
and  technical  high  schools.  Those  who  take  this  point  of  view  believe  that 
fitting  for  all  colleges  almost  inevitably  means  that  such  schools  will  be  domi- 
nated by  tradition  rather  than  modified  to  meet  the  specialized  needs  of  the 
present;  that  the  high  school  shapes  its  work  too  much  toward  the  college 
requirement;  and  that  when  opportunity  comes  to  organize  a  new  secondary 
school,  it  should  be  planned  to  provide  courses  that  will  meet  the  special  needs 
of  its  pupils.  As  one  principal  puts  it: 

To  fashion  our  manual-training  high  schools  so  as  to  fit  the  pupils  for  all  colleges, 
interferes  with  the  primary  and  direct  purpose  of  such  high  schools.  When  colleges  are 
more  ready  to  accredit  value  to  the  work  of  these  schools  it  will  be  time  enough  for  such 
schools  to  strain  a  point,  if  need  be,  by  way  of  further  encouraging  and  helping  their 
students  to  enter  such  colleges. 

Another  principal  writes  that  "these  schools  should  make  a  special  effort 
to  fit  their  students  for  the  greatest  usefulness  without  regard  to  meeting  the 
requirements  of  college-entrance  examinations." 

Dr.  H.  H.  Belfield,  of  Chicago,  writes: 

For  many  years  I  have  maintained  that  when  the  high  school  has  become  only  a  fitting 
school  for  college,  it  is  not  doing  its  full  duty.  Many  boys  do  not  wish  to  go  to  college; 
many  cannot  go  to  college.  Let  there  be  a  high  school  to  fit  boys  for  college  and  a  high 
school  directly  for  life.  The  two  do  not  readily  exist  as  one.  The  older  form  (the  classical 
school)  should  stay;  the  secondary  technical  school  meets  the  other  demand;  it  will  fit 
di  ectly  for  business  and  for  engineering  schools.  With  some  adjustment,  it  may  also 
meet  the  needs  of  those  boys  who  want  the  drawing  and  shopwork  for  entrance  to  scientific 
schools.  But  the  primary  idea  of  the  secondary  technical  school  should  not  be  to  fit  for 
college. 

The  president  of  a  technical  college  states  that 

the  secondary  technical  schools  should  not  fit  for  any  college  except-a  technical  college. 
The  whole  idea  of  these  schools  should  be  to  fit  boys  for  the  manufacturing  life,  and  if, 
for  any  reason,  the  students  cannot  enter  the  technical  college  they  should  be  instructed 
to  do  some  special  work  during  the  last  year  of  their  secondary  course. 

Dr.  Balliet  expresses  a  similar  idea,  and  suggests  a  definite  plan,  viz. : 
While  the  literary  high  school  should  fit  for  the  traditional  college  and  perhaps  the 
engineering  school,  the  commercial  high  school  could  well  fit  for  the  commercial  depart- 
ments in  colleges,  and  the  technical  high  schools  for  engineering  schools  of  college  rank. 
It  seems  to  me,  however,  that  we  should  emphasize  the  fact  that  their  function  as  fitting 
schools  for  higher  institutions  is  secondary  to  their  functions  as  above  defined.  I  do  not 
believe  that  it  is  well  to  have  a  secondary  school  from  which  a  graduate  cannot  go  to  some 
higher  school.  All  types  of  schools  should  be  left  open  at  the  top  to  the  most  gifted  pupils. 
It  is  more  than  probable  that  there  will  be  two  grades  of  technical  high  schools;  those  hav- 
ing four-year  courses  above  the  elementary  schools,  and  others  having  six-year  courses. 
The  latter  would  then  be  practically  fitting  schools  for  the  engineering  colleges,  and  in  that 
case  the  engineering  schools  would  be  rated  in  the  same  way-as  similar  institutions  in  Europe, 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 


95 


where  they  are  on  a  "university  "  instead  of  a  "  college  "  basis.  Such  developments  cannot 
be  forecast  with  any  definiteness;  they  must  come  by  a  natural  process  of  growth. 

Associate  Superintendent  Stevens,  of  New  York  City,  in  response  to  the 
question,  "Would  you  have  the  manual-training  high  school  or  the  technical 
high  school  fit  for  college?"  answered,  "By  no  means.  Division  of  labor 
must  apply  in  education  as  elsewhere."  It  is  clear  that  if  a  high  school  is  to 
give  its  major  attention  to  technical  training  it  will  be  obviously  unable  to 
prepare  for  any  but  technical  colleges. 

V.  Let  us  at  this  point  consider  the  record  of  the  graduates  of  these  schools. 
We  come  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  effect  of  the  manual-training  high  school 
upon  the  choice  of  vocation  made  by  its  graduates.  The  manual-training 
high  school  has  never  claimed  to  fit  boys  directly  for  industrial  pursuits.  In 
its  early  history  this  attitude  was  probably  dictated  by  considerations  of  policy, 
but  in  these  days  of  rapid  movement  toward  secondary  industrial  education, 
it  is  significant  that  the  manual-training  high  school  does  not  even  now  fit 
directly  for  industries  and  that  there  is  little  apparent  tendency  to  modify 
these  institutions  so  that  they  may  meet  adequately  the  requirements  of  second- 
ary technical  education.  The  committee  recognizes  that  the  record  of  gradu- 
ates of  a  school  depends  somewhat  upon  the  school.  In  a  school  where 
shopwork  is  given  but  two  periods  a  week,  or  where  the  teacher  has  only  a 
smattering  of  training,  the  graduates  can  differ  but  little  from  the  graduates 
of  the  ordinary  high  school.  Furthermore,  it  is  difficult  to  judge  the  work 
these  schools  have  done  by  a  mere  study  of  the  record  of  the  graduates,  for  a 
very  different  showing  would  be  made  if  a  record  could  be  given  of  those  who 
attended  for  a  time  but  were  not  graduated.  For  example,  in  the  day  classes 
of  the  Lewis  Institute  of  Chicago,  seven  or  eight  times  as  many  students  have 
attended  as  have  graduated  and  many  of  these  young  men  have  found  desirable 
places  in  industrial  life. 

One  of  the  principals  of  an  eastern  school  writes: 

Few  graduates  are  working  as  journeymen,  but  many  are,  nevertheless,  in  industrial 
life  as  superintendents  of  factories,  foremen,  draftsmen.  There  are  a  good  many 
journeymen  in  the  trades  who  have  had  a  year  or  two  in-a  manual-training  school. 

Principal  Warner,  of  the  Springfield,  Mass.,  school,  writes  in  ;»  similar 
vein,  and  Principal  Morrison,  principal  of  the  Northeast  Manual-Training 
High  School  of  Philadelphia,  states  that 

the  graduates  of  this  school  are  business  men,  professional  men,  professors,  clergymen, 
and  the  great  part  of  the  remainder  follow  the  enlarged  opportunities  offered  in  the  advance- 
ment of  the  scientific  trend  of  the  age. 

Principal  von  Nardroff,  of  the  Stuyvesant  High  School  of  New  York  City, 
writes: 

Of  the  present  senior  class,  numbering  thirty,  twenty-four  are  planning  to  continue 
their  education  in  colleges,  higher  technical  schools,  and  professional  schools,  and  six  are 
immediately  to  seek  employment  in  which  they  will  make  use  of  the  technical  training  of 


96  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

their  high -school  course.  Those  who  are  going  on  to  higher  technical  and  professional 
schools  are  doubtless  making  the  best  possible  use  of  the  education  that  they  have  already 
acquired. 

The  principal  of  the  Denver  Manual  Training  High  School  sends  the  fol- 
lowing record: 

Of  the  class  of  1908,  51  per  cent,  entered  upon  advanced  school  work  in  technical 
school  or  university;  72  per  cent,  of  the  class  of  1907  entered  upon  advanced  school  work 
in  technical  school  or  university. 

The  Chicago  Manual  Training  High  School,  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  coun- 
try, makes  the  following  statement: 

The  character  of  the  work  of  the  school  may  be  inferred  from  the  following  statement 
of  the  occupations  of  some  of  its  66 1  graduates.  In  manufacturing  or  mercantile  business: 
67  mechanical,  electrical,  or  civil  engineers;  61  superintendents  or  managers  of  manu- 
facturing or  other  business  establishments;  102  designers,  draftsmen,  foremen,  chemists, 
machinists,  electricians;  152  bookkeepers,  clerks,  etc.;  137  lawyers,  physicians,  teachers; 
134  graduates  are  in  colleges  or  other  institutions  of  learning;  145  college  degrees  have 
been  received  by  its  graduates. 

Principal  Larkins,  of  the  Brooklyn  Manual-Training  High  School,  sends 
the  following  to  the  committee: 

I  know  that  a  great  many  of  our  graduates,  particularly  women,  have  entered  teaching, 
and  that  large  numbers  have  gone  to  college  from  this  school.  Some  are  in  clerical  posi- 
tions, some  are  merchants,  and  a  few  salesmen;  a  great  many  are  professional  men  and 
engineers;  two  or  three  are  draftsmen.  So  far  as  the  trades  are  concerned,  two  graduates 
became  machinists,  one  of  whom  has  since  died  and  one  has  left  the  business  to  go  on  the 
operatic  stage.  One,  after  a  technical  course  in  Columbia  University,  has  become  a  plum- 
ber; that  is  to  say,  he  has  entered  the  service  of  his  father  who  is  one  of  the  largest  plumber 
contractors  in  the  city.  One  or  two  have  become  artists,  four  or  five  have  become  electri- 
cal mechanics,  and  a  number  have  become  surveyors. 

To  Principal  Bogan,  of  the  Albert  G.  Lane  School  of  Chicago,  the  com- 
mittee is  indebted  for  the  following: 

From  the  40  students  who  expect  to  graduate  in  June,  10  will  enter  engineering  schools; 
2  will  enter  law  schools;  6  will  become  teachers  of  manual  training;  6  will  enter  agricul- 
tural colleges;  4  will  enter  drafting-rooms;  7  will  enter  trades,  and  5  are  undecided. 

Dean  Chamberlain,  of  the  Throop  Institute  of  Pasadena,  Cal.,  states: 

I  append  my  list  showing  the  occupation  of  graduates.  The  fact  that  13  per  cent., 
as  per  appended  list,  are  engineers  and  12  per  cent,  are  managers,  etc.,  shows  that  a  lajrge 
number  go  to  technical  colleges.  Of  the  28  per  cent,  that  are  teachers  and  students,  a 
large  majority  are  now  in  technical  colleges.  You  can  see  at  once  that  our  list  tallies  with 
the  report  of  the  Massachusetts  Industrial  Commission,  as  few  go  into  the  trades. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  value  of  handworking  courses 
in  these  schools  as  Superintendent  Stevens,  of  New  York,  so  weH  states,  "must 
be  judged  not  only  by  the  record  of  its  graduates  but  by  the  proficiency  it  may 
give  the  boy  or  girl  who  does  not  graduate." 

The  aims  of  the  manual-training  high  schools  as  expressed  by  those  who 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL 


97 


preside  over  them,  the  lack  of  definite  correlation  between  academic  and 
manual  work,  and  the  record  of  their  graduates,  together  make  it  clear  that 
these  schools  are  academic  rather  than  vocational  in  character,  that  there  is 
little  apparent  tendency  to  bring  these  schools  into  more  direct  relationship 
with  industrial  activity,  and  that  there  is  little  or  no  desire  to  specially  train 
graduates  for  the  manufacturing  life  of  the  community.  Practically  no  prin- 
cipal of  a  manual-training  school  has  suggested  that  manual  training  be  made 
more  technical  or  that  it  be  reorganized  so  as  to  serve  as  a  preparation  for 
specific  industrial  vocations. 

VI.  This  subcommittee  was  directed  to  examine  the  possibilities  of  technical 
education  in  the  secondary-school  field,  and  to  define  the  functions  of  technical 
high  schools.  This  type  of  school  is  just  now  in  process  of  development  and 
it  is  difficult  to  forecast  just  what  its  ultimate  character  is  to  be.  We  have 
the  engineering  schools  of  collegiate  rank,  but  we  have  had  until  very  recently 
no  public  schools  which  provide  thoro  technical  training  of  secondary  grade. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  positions  coming  between  the  engineer  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  mechanic  on  the  other.  The  special  function  of  the  tech- 
nical high  school  should  be  to  train  men  for  these  positions.  The 
engineering  schools  have  their  own  functions  and  do  not  give  the  practical 
training  involving  the  essentials  of  a  variety  of  trades  and  industrial  processes 
which  foremen,  superintendents  of  shops,  and  men  of  that  type  need.  The 
technical  high  school  can  give  this  practical  training,  and  in  addition,  all  the 
scientific  and  literary  training  which  is  necessary  for  such  positions.  No 
doubt  a  large  number  of  foremen  and  superintendents,  designers  and  manu- 
facturing experts  will,  in  the  future,  come  from  the  rariks  of  mechanics  as  here- 
tofore, but  the  majority  of  such  positions  are  more  and  more  requiring  a  broader 
equipment  than  is  afforded  in  commercial  practice.  Furthermore,  just  as  the 
commercial  high  school  should  not  only  train  stenographers  and  bookkeepers 
and  specialists,  but  also  furnish  broad  training  to  gifted  young  men  who  will 
occupy  responsible  executive  positions  in  the  commercial  world,  so  the  technical 
high  school  should  aim  to  give  courses  broad  enough  to  train  men  who  are  to  be 
manufacturers  and  directors  of  industry.  Such  men  need  a  more  practical 
knowledge  of  mechanical  and  technical  processes  than  the  engineering  college 
now  furnishes. 

Superintendent  L.  D.  Harvey  suggests  that  technical  high  schools  may  be 
of  different  types.  The  committee  quotes  from  his  letter  the  following: 

They  may  be  schools  designed  primarily  to  prepare  students  for  engineering  courses 
in  higher  educational  institutions;  or  schools  designed  to  give  such  technical  training  as 
will  enable  the  students  taking  the  course  to  master  the  technique  of  various  occupations, 
not  perhaps  to  the  fullest  and  most  complete  limit,  but  to  the  limit  that  is  necessary  to  give 
them  the  technical  information  requisite  for  foremen  and  superintendents  in  many  of  the 
lines  of  industrial  work.  It  is  possible  that  these  two  functions  may  be  combined  in  the 
same  school.  It  is  clearly  evident  that  a  school,  whose  courses  have  in  view  the  needs  above 
stated  must  have  a  different  content  for  these  courses  and  must  organize  them  differently 
than  the  courses  in  existence  in  the  technical  high  schools  that  aim  primarily  to  prepare 
students  to  enter  any  kind  of  a  higher  educational  institution. 


98  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Principal  Weaver,  of  the  Girls'  Practical  Arts  High  School  of  Boston,  has 
the  following  conception  of  such  a  school: 

It  is  one  that  should  aim  to  give  training  that  will  enable  the  pupil  to  enter  upon  some 
line  of  industrial  work  and  successfully  perform  it.  Instead  of  spending  time  on  the  vari- 
ous handicrafts,  I  believe  that  the  pupils  should  be  directed  along  one  particular  line. 
Technical  high  schools,  in  preparing  pupils  to  enter  the  industries,  should  give  thoro 
instruction  in  drawing,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  handicraft.  Our  object  is  to  train  girls 
to  be  competent  housekeepers  whether  they  intend  to  become  wage-earners  or  not.  The 
latter  are  prepared  during  the  four  years  to  become  milliners  or  dressmakers. 

Superintendent  Elson,  who  has  had  much  to  do  with  the  establishment  of 
a  technical  high  school  in  Cleveland,  makes  the  following  analysis  of  such  a 
school: 

A  technical  high  school  I  regard  as  a  scientific  school,  a  school  that  is  headed  toward 
intelligent  service  in  the  industries.  It  has  high  standards  of  technical  work,  it  looks  to  an 
effective  output,  and  it  groups  its  academic  subjects  with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  tech- 
nical problems.  The  student  devotes  about  half  his  time  to  technical  and  the  other  half 
to  academic  studies.  The  academic  studies  include  language,  mathematics,  and  science, 
together  with  some  history  and  civics,  hygiene  and  sanitation.  The  usual  treatment  of 
the  various  phases  of  the  academic  studies — for  example,  mathematics — is  not  followed. 
That  is  to  say,  there  is  no  attempt  to  teach  algebra  as  a  science,  or  geometry  as  a  science, 
but  rather  such  parts  of  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  are  selected  as  are 
fundamental  in  carrying  forward  the  requirements  of  the  technical  studies.  The  training 
in  these  is  such  as  to  give  ready  skill  in  the  control  of  the  necessary  mathematical  ideas  to 
forward  the  technical  problems  in  hand.  The  result  of  such  instruction  should  be  pupils 
with  a  ready,  usable  knowledge  of  the  fundamental  problems  and  processes  in  arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  .Similarly,  science  should  deal  with  those  topics 
chosen  especially  with  reference  to  their  utility.  The  science  should  be  applied  science 
rather  than  general  science.  Again,  English,  German,  or  French  offers  opportunity  for 
giving  the  industrial  bias  to  the  work.  The  theme-writing  can  well  include  as  topics  the 
products  and  processes  involved  in  manufacture.  Such  a  school  therefore  groups  its  studies, 
selects  its  topics,  and  arranges  its  instruction  with  reference  to  its  fundamental  needs  on 
the  technical  side.  Such  a  school  is  not  headed  for  college.  It  seeks  to  make  efficient 
workers  and  intelligent  workmen.  The  student  need  not  have  less  culture  and  he  certainly 
will  have  a  larger  fund  of  usable  knowledge  than  would  be  possible  were  the  academic 

studies  carried  in  isolated,  parallel  lines  and  developed  as  entities,  or  as  sciences 

The  technical  school  probably  offers  some  opportunity  for  specialization  during  the  last 
year  of  its  course.  The  manual-training  high  schools  certainly  do  not  meet  the  needs  of  the 
situation.  Indeed,  from  an  industrial  standpoint  they  have  done  very  little  to  help  condi- 
tions. There  are  no  technical  high  schools  in  the  country,  or  at  most  only  one  or  two; 
and  what  they  will  do  in  the  way  of  supplying  industrial  needs  can  only  be  determined  by 
way  of  a  guess.  My  impression  is  that  this  is  the  type  of  secondary  school  which  has  a 
distinct  and  important  place  and  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  the  cause  of  industry. 
Indeed,  from  an  educational  standpoint,  I  think  the  technical  high  school  is  of  command- 
ing importance.  However,  to  my  mind,  we  need,  first,  to  get  our  general  schools  of  a  prac- 
tical nature  on  a  more  effective  basis.  I  believe  that  it  is  wise  to  move  rather  toward  the 
making  of  technical  high  schools,  than  toward  so-called  manual-training  schools.  The 
need  for  a  purely  literary  high  school  is  very  limited  in  comparison  with  that  of  the  school 
of  the  type  of  technical  high  school,  defined  above. 

George  H.  Martin,  secretary  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, outlined  the  place  and  function  of  a  technical  high  school  in  a  paper 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL         99 

read  at  the  meeting  of  the  Department  of  Superintendence  at  Washington  in 
1908: 

(i)  Such  a  school  will  have  an  avowedly  vocational  purpose.  This  will  exclude  the 
so-called  general  courses  for  culture  which  aim  only  to  offer  new  intellectual  feeding- 
grounds  for  boys  who  do  not  care  to  browse  in  the  old  academic  pastures.  (2)  The  voca- 
tions for  which  such  a  school  would  prepare  are  not  in  the  professions.  Hence,  courses 
especially  designed  to  prepare  for  the  colleges  and  for  the  normal  schools  would  be  excluded, 
though  these  are  really  vocational  courses.  (3)  Technical  high  schools  may  be  commer- 
cial, agricultural,  or  mechanical.  Mechanical  high  schools  may  be  as  varied  as  the  manu- 
facturing industries  for  which  they  are  to  prepare.  A  school  may  prepare  for  a  single 
industry  or  it  may  be  polytechnic  in  its  character,  offering  a  variety  of  courses  adapted  to 
local  needs.  (4)  In  the  age  of  its  pupils,  in  the  length  of  its  courses,  and  in  its  preparatory 
requirements,  a  technical  high  school  should  correspond  with  high  schools  of  other  sorts. 
This  would  call  for  four-year  courses  following  the  completion  of  an  eight-  or  nine-year 
elementary  course,  and  would  include  pupils,  roughly  speaking,  from  fourteen  to  eighteen 
years  of  age.  (5)  Being  a  technical  school  its  distinctive  function  would  be  to  develop 
economic  efficiency,  but  in  common  with  all  public  schools  it  must  aim  also  to  develop  intel- 
lectual and  moral  character.  Each  of  these  aims  is  both  individual  and  social.  (6)  The 
work  of  the  school  will  be  threefold:  (a)  to  furnish  technical  knowledge  and  technical 
skill;  (6)  to  promote  intelligence,  breadth,  and  refinement  of  a  cultural  sort;  (c)  to  develop 
a  sense  of  civic  obligation.  (7)  For  the  first  purpose  there  should  be  drawing,  mathematics, 
and  science,  in  kind  and  amount  according  to  the  needs  of  the  industry  for  whose  technique 
the  student  is  preparing.  (8)  Technical  skill  in  mechanic  arts  can  be  acquired  only  in  a 
shop,  so  that  shop  practice  must  constitute  a  large  part  of  the  work  of  the  technical  school. 
It  may  be  gained  either  in  a  school  shop  or  in  a  commercial  shop.  Which  is  better,  the 
experience  of  the  world  has  not  yet  determined.  Both  are  in  operation  and  each  has  its 
advantages.  Undoubtedly  a  good  school  shop  is  better  than  a  poor  commercial  shop; 
but  a  school  shop,  to  be  good,  must  contain  the  essential  features  of  the  best  commercial 
shop.  Its  instructors  must  be  shop-trained  men;  its  hours  and  discipline  must  be  those  of 
the  shop;  and  its  product  must  be  a  salable  commercial  product.  Whether  the  product 
should  be  sold  or  not  is  another  question.  What  is  true  of  the  shopwork  is  equally  true  of 
the  farm  work.  (9)  In  order  that  the  student  may  become  a  useful  citizen  as  well  as  a 
skilled  workman,  the  school  course  should  include  history,  economics,  and  civics.  Time 
also  should  be  provided  for  thoro  physical  training,  including  personal  hygiene  and  organ- 
ized athletics.  English  should  be  cultivated  thruout  the  course  by  composition  and 
forensics.  Opportunity  should  be  offered  to  those  students  who  might  find  relaxation  and 
aesthetic  pleasure  in  the  study  and  practice  of  vocal  and  instrumental  music. 

The  committee  does  not  wish  to  overlook  those  cities  and  towns  which 
cannot  have  a  completely  differentiated  high-school  system,  and  wishes  to 
make  clear  that  industrial  and  educational  conditions  in  different  communities 
are  so  varied  that  no  one  type  of  school  can  meet  the  needs  of  all  communities. 
It  may  be  entirely  possible  in  some  communities  to  modify  slowly  manual- 
training  courses  in  high  schools,  transferring  the  prevailing  cultural  purpose 
into  the  industrial,  without  any  real  loss  of  culture.  In  many  communities 
the  technical  high  school  is  not  at  all  feasible,  altho  there  are  many  boys  who 
ought  to  have  the  opportunity  of  developing  efficiency  in  industrial  pursuits. 
The  committee  suggests  that  in  many  of  the  smaller  cities  the  manual-train- 
ing courses  in  the  elementary  school  and  in  the  high  school  may  be  modified 
so  as  to  meet  this  need  in  a  fairly  satisfactory  way.  In  such  cases  every  effort 


100  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

should  be  made  to  make  the  handwork  an  integral  part  of  the  course  of  study 
of  the  industrial  pupils. 

Assuming  that  manual-training  high  schools  do  not  make  provision  for 
industrial  education  of  secondary  grade,  and  that  technical  high  schools  exist 
in  exceedingly  small  numbers  in  this  country,  it  remains  to  be  shown  that  there 
is  a  real  need  for  such  schools.  First,  it  may  be  noted  that  in  the  judgment 
of  nearly  every  respondent,  there  is  a  distinct  place  for  industrial  education  of 
a  secondary  character.  The  manual- training  high  school  was  introduced  into 
our  public-school  system  very  largely  because  of  a  belief  on  the  part  of  the 
public  that  in  them  students  would  be  fitted  for  actual  industrial  pursuits. 
Now  that  these  schools  have  found  another  place  in  the  scheme  of  secondary 
education,  the  field  is  left  open  for  another  type  of  secondary  school  that  will 
meet  the  expectations  that  were  directed  upon  the  older  manual-training  high 
school.  The  committee  does  not  urge  that  the  literary,  commercial,  and 
manual-training  high  schools  are  not  worth  all  they  have  cost;  on  the  con- 
trary, it  feels  that  they  contribute  an  invaluable  element  of  modern  education. 
It  is  only  intended  to  urge  that  they  meet  the  needs  of  industrial  education 
only  partially,  and  that  their  ideals  and  methods  are  such  that  it  is  impossible 
for  them  to  meet  this  situation  adequately. 

Handwork  in  secondary  education  has  another  mission  besides  that  of 
general  culture.  While  everyone  should  know  how  to  use  his  hands,  a  pre- 
ponderating number  of  each  generation  of  school  children  must  know  how  to 
use  them  for  some  definite  purpose.  To  them  the  question  is  not  one  of  aca- 
demic culture,  but  of  livelihood.  In  every  great  manufacturing  city  this  num- 
ber is  very  large.  The  welfare  of  a  city,  its  rank  among  the  municipalities  of 
the  land,  must  depend  in  a  large  degree  on  the  efficiency  of  its  skilled  workers 
and  industrial  leaders.  That  large  body  of  pupils  who  annually  make  their 
exodus  from  the  elementary  and  high  schools,  beginning  at  the  sixth  school 
year,  to  a  very  large  extent,  enter  low-grade  and  poorly  paid  commercial  and 
industrial  pursuits.  After  they  work  a  year  or  two  they  often  realize  their 
lack  of  training.  Some  enter  night  schools,  but  most  of  them  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  further  educational  influences.  If  some  means  could  be  devised 
whereby  these  boys  and  girls  would  be  more  definitely  strengthened  for  their 
vocations,  while  at  the  same  time  they  were  given  a  further  general  education, 
a  long  stride  would  be  taken  toward  making  of  them  more  self-reliant  men  and 
women  and  better  citizens. 

In  New  York  City  approximately  37  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  engaged 
in  industrial  and  mechanical  work;  37  per  cent,  in  business,  19  per  cent,  in 
domestic  service,  and  5  per  cent,  in  the  learned  professions,  and  undoubtedly 
other  large  cities  of  our  country  would  show  a  similar  distribution.  There 
are  many  schools  for  the  5  per  cent,  in  the  learned  professions,  and  there  should 
not  be  fewer;  but  aside  from  the  engineering  schools  of  college  grade,  there  are 
but  few  containing  thoro  practical  courses  for  the  37  per  cent,  engaged  in  indus- 
trial and  mechanical  work.  The  schools,  both  elementary  and  high,  are  too 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL       101 

exclusively  literary  in  their  character  for  large  numbers  of  average  active  boys 
from  thirteen  to  seventeen  years.  This  is  a  period  when  such  boys  need  to 
realize  a  practical  quality  in  their  education.  If  such  boys  could  enter  a  school 
with  a  definite  vocational  end  in  view,  where  they  could  feel  the  interrelation 
between  their  mathematics,  science,  drawing,  and  shopwork;  and  where  they 
would  realize  that  they  were  preparing  themselves  for  definite  work  in  the 
skilled  industries,  where  their  wages  would  be  commensurate  with  their  worth, 
it  is  not  too  much  to  prophesy  that  many  such  boys  would  continue  at  school 
both  from  their  own  choice  and  with  the  encouragement  of  their  parents. 

Investigation  seems  to  prove  that  there  is  a  demand  for  this  type  of  school 
for  the  education  of  boys  and  girls  of  secondary  age  who  do  not  care  to  take  up 
the  work  of  existing  high  schools  and  who  desire  to  prepare  primarily  for  some 
particular  activity. 

The  facts  developed  by  this  report  also  seem  to  indicate  clearly  that  such 
a  school  must  be  in  many  ways  a  somewhat  radical  departure  from  present 
types  of  secondary  school. 

In  1906  the  Board  of  Education  in  Cleveland  appointed  an  educational 
commission  which  was  asked  to  make  a  study  of  the  educational  system  of  the 
city  and  suggest  such  changes  as  would  be  beneficial.  It  took  up  the  question 
of  technical  high  schools  and  commercial  high  schools.  In  studying  the  prob- 
lem the  commission  reported  substantially  as  follows:  Cleveland  has  six  high 
schools  of  the  old  type  which  fit  boys  for  college  or  which  give  them  the  broad 
training  of  the  high  school  as  preparation  for  their  life-work,  whatever  that 
may  be.  The  majority  of  students  who  attend  high  school  at  all  will  continue, 
to  go  to  one  of  these  schools.  These  schools  do  not  give  any  special  prepara- 
tion for  either  the  manufacturing  or  the  commercial  life  of  the  city,  and, 
in  our  opinion,  there  should  be  one  school  at  least  in  each  of  these  lines.  The 
commission  therefore  recommended  that  a  manual-training  high  school  be 
established  having  a  four-year  course  with  morning  and  afternoon  sessions, 
which  should  give  at  least  one-half  of  each  day  to  study  and  recitation  work 
and  one-half  of  each  day  to  practical  work  in  the  shop,  the  drawing-room,  or 
the  laboratory.  The  commission  stated  its  belief  that  the  graduates  of  this 
school  would  be  in  great  demand  by  manufacturers,  and  that  while  in  some 
cases  they  would  go  into  the  shops  as  mechanics,  they  would  undoubtedly, 
in  a  short  time,  if  showing  the  ability,  become  foremen,  and  later  on,  assistant 
superintendents.  The  fact  that  they  would  be  well-educated  young  men  with 
special  knowledge  of  drawing  and  the  use  of  tools,  would  quickly  fit  them  for 
positions  of  responsibility.  Some  of  them  might  go  into  the  shop;  some  might 
go  into  the  office;  some  might  become  salesmen;  but  in  any,  or  all  of  these  po- 
sitions, the  practical  knowledge  they  gained  would  be  of  utmost  benefit. 

The  report  of  this  commission  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  a  technical 
high  school,  and  Principal  James  F.  Barker,  in  a  speech  before  the  Eastern 
Association  of  Manual  Training  Teachers  at  Pittsburg,  May,  1909,  described 
the  educational  practice  underlying  this  school.  Parts  of  his  address  follow: 


102  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Large  cities  are  coming  to  see  that  they  must  provide  specialized  schools  to  meet  the 
needs  and  popular  demands  of  their  people;  that  present-day  schools  do  not  meet  these 
needs  in  many  cases  is  all  too  apparent.  The  number  of  children  in  the  various  grades 
in  the  Cleveland  schools  are  as  follows:  ist,  14,509;  ad,  9,992;  3d,  9,530;  4th,  8,780; 
5th,  7,702;  6th,  6,179;  7th,  4,974;  8th,  3,154;  High  ist,  1,903;  High  2d,  1,426;  High  3d, 
930;  High  4th,  740.  Compare  the  first  figures,  14,000,  with  the  last  figure,  700.  The 
high-school  graduating  class  is  only  5  per  cent,  of  the  first-grade  registration.  Figures 
of  this  sort  have  been  hurled  at  our  heads  till  we  are  weary  and  yet  we  do  not  grasp  the 

significance  of  a  tremendous  loss  like  this What  is  the  matter  with  the  schools  ? 

Nothing  so  far  as  they  go.  They  stop  short  of  their  full  mission.  The  difficulty  is  else- 
where. It  is  mainly  in  our  industrialism.  We  must  readjust  ourselves  to  these  conditions 

and  readjust  our  system  of  education But  education  seems  to  have  reversed  the 

usual  order  of  evolution,  and  instead  of  growing  from  the  bottom  up,  it  has  always  been 
from  the  top  downward.  From  the  university  of  mediaeval  times  to  the  preparatory  schools 
of  the  past  two  centuries,  thence  to  the  grammar  school,  and  last  of  all  we  have  cared  for 
the  little  children  in  the  kindergarten.  And  following  this  general  trend  of  education,  we 
establish  vocational  high  schools  before  vocational  grammar-grade  schools.  So  the  Cleve- 
land Technical  High  School,  which  is  a  vocational  school,  precedes  the  vocational  school 
for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  but  the  duty  of  the  vocational  high  school  will  never 
be  the  same  as  the  duty  of  the  vocational  school  of  the  grammar  grades.  A  vocational 
high  school  must  train  for  industrial  leadership,  just  as  an  academic  high  school  trains  for 
professional  leadership.  In  planning  the  course  for  the  Cleveland  Technical  High  School, 
then,  the  first  step  was  to  free  ourselves  from  the  dominating  idea  of  the  college-entrance 
requirement,  and  this  we  have  done.  Our  course  is  a  four-year  course,  predominantly 
strong  in  science  thruout,  with  a  two-year  preparatory  manual-training  course  supple- 
mented by  two  more  years  of  trade  instruction.  The  two  years  devoted  to  manual  training 
have  "general  industrial  intelligence"  as  the  watchword,  with  an  effort  to  secure  as  much 
information  related  to  the  industries  as  can  be  gathered.  At  the  completion  of  these  two 
years  a  trade  may  be  selected  by  the  student,  with  the  assistance  of  the  home  and  upon  the 
advice  of  the  school.  From  that  time  on,  twenty  hours  a  week  (four  hours  daily)  for  two 
years  gives  us  the  desired  opportunity  to  teach  trades.  But  this  is  only  half  of  the  school 
day.  Pupils  are  still  required  to  study  English,  mathematics,  and  science  as  during  the 
two  preceding  years,  and  thruout  we  are  using  the  industries  as  the  center  about  which  to 
group  the  academic  subjects.  Our  first-year  mathematics  is  shop  mathematics,  with  a 
strong  accent  upon  the  simple  handling  of  numbers  (simple  arithmetic  in  a  high  school, 
note  you).  Next  year  we  are  going  to  take  a  group  of  boys  thru  a  combination  course 
teaching  mathematics — arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry — as  one  subject. 
The  first  year  geography  is  related  to  the  industries  and  leads  up  thru  weather  and  climatic 
conditions  to  production  of  raw  material  into  manufacture  and  thence  transportation. 
Our  English  is  taking  on  more  and  more  industrialism.  We  visit  shops,  write  stories  of 
manufacture,  and  read  stories  of  invention  and  industrial  discovery.  Thru  the  four  years 
of  the  school  we  are  relating  the  English,  the  mathematics,  and  the  science  to  the  shop 

problem.     We  are  writing  our  own  text  as  we  proceed The  industrial  branches 

offered  to  the  boys,  of  course,  differ  from  those  available  for  girls.  Evidently,  then,  from 
the  relationship  between  the  technical  and  the  academic  work,  the  girls  would  not  receive 
the  same  instruction  in  algebra  and  other  subjects  as  that  given  to  the  boys,  and  so  in  all 
subjects  the  boys  and  the  girls  are  segregated.  The  only  place  where  they  recite  together 
is  at  the  noon  period  during  luncheon.  In  the  trades  we  are  offering  cabinet-making, 
pattern-making  and  foundry  practice,  machine  shop,  architectural,  and  mechanical  draft- 
ing, printing  and  bookbinding,  pottery  and  applied  design,  millinery,  catering  and  cooking. 
Another  experiment  which  we  are  watching  with  considerable  interest  is  that  of  the  Summer 
Quarter.  That  is,  the  school  is  planned  to  operate  forty-eight  weeks  a  year — twelve  weeks 
constituting  a  quarter,  with  a  single  week's  vacation  between.  To  graduate,  twelve  quar- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL        103 

ters  are  required.  These  may  be  taken  three  per  year  for  four  years,  or  four  per  year  for 
three  years,  or  ad  libitum.  The  next  class  enters  July  6.  This  we  believe  will  mean  a 
great  deal  to  many  boys,  this  shortening  of  the  full  high-school  course  from  four  to  three 
years.  It  means  more,  it  means  that  teachers  are  paid  for  twelve  jnstead  of  for  ten  months. 
Strong  vigorous  teachers  can  stand  the  strain  just  as  any  business  man  or  woman  engaged 
in  other  pursuits  does.  A  teacher  who  would  receive  $1,500  thus  earns  $2,000,  and  has 
four  weeks  of  vacation  per  year.  One  reason  why  teachers  are  so  underpaid  is  the  fact 
that  during  less  than  200  out  of  the  365  days,  less  than  six  hours  daily  are  given  to  active 
teaching.  To  date,  about  one-half  of  the  boys  are  planning  to  attend  the  Summer  Quarter. 
The  proportion  of  girls  is  somewhat  less.  In  all,  our  Summer  Quarter  will  enroll  450 
pupils.  During  the  last  week  of  the  1909  summer  session  the  attendance  was  98.8  per 
cent,  and  at  no  time  did  it  go  below  96  per  cent.  (Principal  Barker  reports  that  during  the 
session  the  school  lost  an  enrollment  of  twelve  pupils  out  of  a  total  enrollment  of  430.) 
Last  year  about  5,000  pupils  attended  the  six  Cleveland  High  schools.  This  fall  the 
Technical  opened  with  an  attendance  of  nearly  700.  The  total  falling  off  in  the  other  high 
schools  was  42 — that  is,  the  establishment  and  opening  of  this  school  supplied  the  needs 
of  658  pupils  who  otherwise  would  have  left  school  at  the  eighth  grade.  If  no  other  good 
has  come  of  the  project,  this  alone  would  have  been  full  compensation  for  opening  such  an 

institution During  the  past  winter  an  evening  school  teaching  trades  has  been 

open  to  men  and  women  engaged  at  the  same  trade  during  the  day.  That  is,  classes  in 
machine-shop  practice,  for  instance,  were  opened  for  men  employed  as  machinists  during 
their  working-hours,  and  so  on  thru  other  lines  of  work.  The  applicants  numbered  three 
times  the  capacity  of  the  school.  One  particularly  interesting  class  was  formed.  An 
organization  of  men  employing  sheet-metal  workers  is  sending  its  apprentices  to  evening 
school.  These  apprentices  are  regularly  indentured.  Part  of  the  contract  calls  for  two 
years'  instruction  in  the  evening  technical  high  school,  the  employers  paying  $7.50  per 
term  for  four  terms  for  the  instruction.  Here  is  a  trade  that  has  perhaps  felt  as  strongly 
as  any  the  need  of  more  intelligent  workers.  The  evening  class  attendance  was  over 
85  per  cent,  of  perfect  in  all  classes  and  in  some  it  was  95  per  cent,  for  the  winter. 

A  strong  feature  of  this  type  of  school  is  the  direct  bearing  which 
the  academic  instruction  has  upon  the  industries.  This  is  an  essential  feature 
of  secondary  industrial  education.  Superintendent  Harvey  writes  that  the 
Stout  Institute  is  slowly  modifying  some  of  its  academic  subjects  from  the 
traditional  ideas  as  manifested  in  textbooks  in  use  in  high  schools  with  the  effort 
to  make  the  instruction  bear  a  more  definite  relation  to  the  activities  of  life 
than  it  does  in  the  traditional  high  school. 

Principal  Bogan,  of  the  Albert  G.  Lane  Technical  High  School  of  Chicago, 
states  that  his  school  is  aiming  to  make  all  subjects  as  practical  as  possible — 
for  instance,  much  of  the  mathematics  consists  of  shop  problems.  In  physics 
special  emphasis  is  placed  on  electricity.  In  fact,  he  proposes  to  offer  a  three- 
year  course  in  electrical  physics  preparatory  to  the  one-year  course  in  electrical 
construction.  In  English  a  large  part  of  the  composition  work  is  devoted 
to  shop  activities,  and  much  of  the  outside  reading  is  devoted  to  the  study  of 
the  lives  of  great  inventors,  discoverers,  and  explorers.  In  physiography 
unusual  attention  is  given  to  a  study  of  the  metallic  ores;  and  in  botany  a 
large  share  of  the  time  is  devoted  to  a  course  in  elementary  forestry  closely 
related  to  work  in  the  wood  shop.  Mechanical  drawing,  freehand  drawing 
and  machine  sketching,  architectural  drawing  and  machine  design  are  closely 


104  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

related  to  the  work  of  the  science  laboratories  and  shops.     In  history  emphasis 
is  placed  on  the  development  of  industry. 

Dr.  Balliet  thinks  that  the  shopwork  and  all  the  academic  work  must  be 
most  closely  correlated.  He  further  states: 

The  technical  ideal  must  make  itself  felt,  not  only  in  the  shopwork  but  in  all  the  aca- 
demic work,  and  especially  in  mathematics  and  the  sciences.  In  such  a  school,  science  must 
be  taught  as  applied  science,  and  mathematics  as  applied  mathematics.  Even  in  such 
subjects  as  English  and  history,  the  technical  ideal  must  considerably  modify  the  treatment 
as  compared  with  the  treatment  of  these  subjects  in  a  literary  high  school.  In  this  respect 
the  technical  high  school  must  differ  radically  from  a  literary  high  school  or  a  commercial 
high  school  with  a  shop  attached  to  it.  Necessarily  it  follows  also  that,  if  science  and  mathe- 
matics are  to  be  taught  in  their  application  to  .mechanical  and  technical  processes,  coeduca- 
tion in  a  technical  high  school  is  impossible  in  the  sense  that  boys  and  girls  are  to  study  and 
recite  together  in  the  same  class;  for  it  is  not  possible  that  the  two  sexes  should  be  interested 
in  the  same  line  of  applications.  Coeducation,  in  the  sense  that  one-half  of  the  school  may 
be  attended  by  boys  and  the  other  half  by  girls,  the  two  halves  being  practically  as  distinct 
and  separate  as  two  independent  schools,  will  of  course  be  possible,  but  hardly  desirable. 

The  Technical  High  School  in  Cleveland  seems  to  the  committee  to 
approach  most  closely  to  the  definition  previously  given  for  such  a  school. 
There  are  several  other  " technical  high  schools"  in  the  country,  but  an  exami- 
nation of  their  courses  of  study  will  show  that  they  do  not  radically  differ  from 
ordinary  manual-training  high  schools. 

The  investigation  also  shows  that  some  schools  not  called  "technical  high 
schools"  are  fulfilling  the  function  of  such  a  school  as  defined  by  this  commit- 
tee. The  California  School  of  Mechanical  Arts  at  San  Francisco  is  one  of 
these.  This  school  has  proved  to  its  own  satisfaction  that  there  is  a  demand 
for  technical  training  of  high-school  grade.  Its  polytechnic  course  differs 
from  the  course  usually  given  in  manual-training  high  schools  by  leaning  more 
decidedly  to  the  practical  or  industrial  side:  (i)  in  the  amount  and  character 
of  the  shop  and  technical  instruction;  (2)  in  the  length  of  the  daily  program; 
(3)  in  the  type  of  its  shop  teachers;  (4)  in  emphasizing  applied  mathematics 
and  science  in  preference  to  literary  subjects;  (5)  in  its  distinctive  viewpoint 
and  atmosphere  generally. 

VII.  The  special  field  assigned  to  this  committee  was  that  of  secondary 
industrial  and  technical  education.  The  Committee  has  thus  far  attempted  to 
show  the  purpose,  methods,  and  results  of  manual-training  high  schools.  It  has 
attempted  a  definition  of  the  technical  high  school  and  has  given  considerable 
attention  to  the  educational  practice  appropriate  to  such  a  school.  It  has 
emphasized  the  necessity  of  a  direct  relationship  between  academic  studies  and 
shopwork.  It  has  pointed  out  that  the  course  in  such  a  school  should  not  be 
influenced  by  college  requirements  beyond  those  of  a  technical  college.  It  has 
attempted  to  make  clear  that  the  academic  standards  of  such  a  school  must  be 
different  from  those  of  a  literary  high  school,  and  finally,  that  the  consensus 
of  opinion  as  based  upon  the  replies  seems  to  be  that  such  a  school  can  do  its 
best  work  when  it  is  a  separate  educational  unit.  While  this  committee  was 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL        105 

not  directly  concerned  with  the  question  of  " trades  schools,"" it  was  thought 
best  to  send  out  a  letter  of  inquiry  to  ascertain  whether  there  was  a  demand 
for  trade  instruction  and  whether  the  technical  high  school,  in  some  measure, 
could  meet  this  demand  or  whether  there  should  be  a  separate  school  unit  for 
such  instruction.  Without  any  exception  the  replies  point  out  that  neither 
the  manual-training  high  school  nor  the  technical  high  school  can  fully  meet  the 
needs  of  all  secondary  industrial  education.  In  all  the  suggestions  offered 
to  the  committee  concerning  a  plan  for  secondary  industrial  education,  much 
was  made  of  industrial  education  of  a  grade  somewhat  lower  than  that  of  the 
technical  high  school.  In  the  words  of  Dr.  Balliet: 

We  need  a  fourth  type  of  school  which  might  be  called,  perhaps,  a  secondary  school, 
tho  I  should  prefer,  I  think,  the  name  "intermediate  industrial  school."  Such  a  school 
should  cover,  in  point  of  time,  the  last  two  years  at  least  of  the  elementary-school  course  and 
the  first  two  years  of  the  high-school  course.  In  such  a  school  there  can  be  organized  a 
great  variety  of  courses  fitting  for  corresponding  trades.  The  local  needs  of  the  community 
should  largely  determhie  the  trades  to  be  taught,  and  yet  not  entirely,  as  in  these  days  the 
migration  of  labor  from  place  to  place  is  so  easy  that  we  are  not  justified  in  urging  a  pupil 
to  take  up  a  trade  for  which  he  has  little  taste  solely  because  there  is  a  strong  demand  ft  r 
it  in  the  locality. 

The  report  of  the  Subcommittee  on  the  Intermediate  Industrial  School 
covers  fully  this  field  as  outlined  by  Dr.  Balliet,  and  the  attention  that  this 
committee  proposes  to  give  to  this  field  is  merely  for  the  purpose  of  consider- 
ing whether  some  of  the  work  of  the  intermediate  school  can  be  done,  tem- 
porarily at  least,  in  the  building  devoted  to  secondary  industrial  education. 
The  present  discussion  should  be  read  in  closest  connection  with  that  of  the 
Subcommittee  on  the  Intermediate  Industrial  School.  If  the  intermediate 
industrial  school  has  a  four-year  course  it  will  lie  either  entirely  or  partly 
within  the  secondary  field  of  education,  according  to  the  point  at  which  second- 
ary education  is  assumed  to  begin.  George  A.  Merrill,  principal  of  the  School 
of  Mechanical  Arts  at  San  Francisco,  suggests  the  following  plan  of  organiza- 
tion: 

The  elementary  school  should  end  with  the  sixth  grade.  The  present  high  school 
should  be  cut  exactly  in  two.  Grades  7,  8,  9,  and  10  should  constitute  an  intermediate 
or  secondary  school  by  itself.  Grades  n,  12,  13,  and  14  should  be  grouped  together  as  a 
higher  school  or  college.  If  the  tendency  thruout  the  nation  is  the  same  as  it  is  in  Cali- 
fornia, it  is  in  the  direction  of  some  sort  of  an  arrangement  su&i  as  I  have  outlined.  For 
a  number  of  years  we  have  been  discussing  the  advisability  of  a  "six  and  six"  arrangement, 
taking  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  from  the  elementary  school  and  adding  them  to  the 
high  school.  Now  come  the  universities,  asking  to  have  the  college  freshman  and  sophomore 
years  (Grades  13  and  14)  transferred  to  the  province  of  the  high  schools.  The  desirability 
of  having  the  elementary  school  terminate  with  the  sixth  grade  is  pretty  generally  recognized 
but  the  importance  of  subdividing  Grades  7  to  14  into  two  stages  of  four  years  each  is  what 
I  want  to  emphasize,  tho  speaking  only  from  the  industrial  point  of  view  for  the  time 
being.  As  it  stands  today,  boys  finishing  the  grammar  school  at  the  age  of  fifteen  (which 
is  approximately  the  average)  are  too  young,  by  two  years,  to  begin  apprenticeships. 
That  means  that  the  natural  age  for  beginning  apprenticeships  comes  right  in  the  middle 
of  the  present  high-school  period.  The  intermediate  school  that  T  propose  (to  include 


io6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Grades  7  to  10)  would  graduate  boys  at  the  age  when  so  many  of  them  drop  out  of  the 
second  year  of  the  present  high  schools,  and  hence  such  a  school  would  be  the  logical 
place  in  which  to  develop  "industrial  intelligence"  preliminary  to  an  apprenticeship. 
The  high  school  or  college  that  I  propose  (Grades  u  to  14)  is  where  differentiation  should 
begin.  Some  would  be  trade  schools,  some  classical  schools,  some  pre-medical,  some 
technical  high  schools,  some  commercial.  The  basis  of  this  proposed  regrouping  of  the 
grades  is  not  a  matter  of  speculation;  it  has  been  forced  upon  me  through  my  experience 
in  the  Lick  and  Wilmerding  schools.  The  Wilmerding  school  is  intended  solely  to  teach 
boys  trades,  and  we  have  tried  hard  to  keep  within  that  province.  Most  of  our  boys  we 
have  taken  just  as  they  graduate  from  the  grammar  school.  We  have  tried  to  determine 
whether  it  is  feasible  to  take  such  boys  and  teach  them  trades  as  an  integral  part  of  their 
general  education  and  preparation  for  life,  and  our  experience  tells  us  that  it  would  be  bet- 
ter if  we  could  take  them  two  years  later  in  life.  The  future  American  trade  school  must 
find  some  way  to  get  its  boys  at  the  same  age  at  which  boys  ordinarily  begin  apprentice- 
ships outside  of  school — not  because  of  custom  alone,  but  because  that  is  the  time  when 
boys  seem  mentally  and  physically  ready  to  begin  their  trades.  Certainly  they  are  not 
ready  or  fit  for  trades  at  the  usual  age  of  graduation  from  the  grammar  school.  The 
practical  difficulty  at  present,  of  course,  is  in  winning  back  into  the  schoolroom  the  army 
of  seventeen-year-old  boys  who  have  been  out  of  school  three,  four,  or  five  years,  having 
dropped  out  of  school  when  the  "industrial  instinct"  began  to  manifest  itself  within  them; 
in  other  words,  at  the  end  of  the  sixth  grade.  The  industrial  branches  most  suitable  to  be 
incorporated  in  such  an  intermediate  school  will  have  to  be  determined  by  trial.  The 
woodwork  and  forgework  of  the  present  manual-training  high  school  might  well  be  retained, 
since  wood  and  mild  steel  still  constitute  the  leading  materials  of  construction.  That  is  the 
test  that  I  would  apply,  as  a  rule,  in  the  choice  of  shop  subjects;  I  would  select  occupa- 
tions that  have  to  do  with  the  materials  most  commonly  used  in  the  industries.  Applying  that 
test,  I  would  say  that  electrical  work  and  sheet-metal  work  are  deserving  of  a  more  promi- 
nent place  in  school  shops,  since  the  modern  tendency  in  the  use  of  metals  is  in  the  forms 
of  wire  and  rolled  sheets.  In  the  intermediate  school  I  would  substitute  electrical  work 
(including  light  machine  work)  for  the  machine-shop  course  of  the  present  manual-training 
high  school.  We  have  tried  it  at  the  Wilmerding  School  and  we  find  that  it  works  well. 
I  am  amazed  also  to  observe  how  bricklaying  has  become  quite  popular  as  an  elective 
manual-training  subject  among  our  students  in  the  Lick  as  well  as  in  the  Wilmerding  school. 
My  next  observation  has  to  do  with  the  matter  of  academic  studies  in  connection  with 
trade  teaching.  Year  by  year  I  have  been  forced  back  toward  the  conclusion  that  the 
founder  of  the  Wilmerding  School  was  on  the  right  track  when  he  expressed  the  idea  of 
"teaching  boys  trades,  with  plenty  of  work  and  little  study."  Unfortunately,  the  average 
boy  who  insists  on  leaving  school  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  thirteen  needs  Mr.  Wilmerding's 
prescription,  and  so  does  the  average  apprentice  of  seventeen  or  eighteen.  The  apprentice 
and  the  young  journeyman  who  attend  night  school  or  who  take  correspondence  courses, 
etc.,  do  so,  not  to  perfect  themselves  in  their  trades,  but  with  a  view  to  getting  out  of  their 
trades.  I  am  here  merely  telling  what  my  experience  dictates  as  the  proper  amount  of 
academic  work  to  count  on  for  the  future  trade  school — not  the  intermediate  school,  but 
the  higher  trade  school.  In  the  intermediate  school  the  boy  who  wants  plenty  of  work  and 
little  study  should  be  accommodated,  if  he  insists  on  it,  but  he  is  the  boy  who  will  be 
expected  to  graduate  from  the  intermediate  school  into  the  trade  school,  while  his  more 
studious  neighbor  will  be  a  candidate  for  one  of  the  other  high  schools. 

There  appears  to  be  a  unanimity  of  opinion  that  the  trade  school  should  be 
separate  from  the  technical  high  school.  The  majority  of  respondents  have 
suggested  that  the  term  "  trade  high  school "  is  a  misnomer.  Professor  Charles 
R.  Richards,  of  Cooper  Union,  voices  the  opinion  of  many  when  he  states: 


\ 

INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL        107 

I  do  not  believe  that  there  is  any  vital  possibility  of  such  a  thing  as  a  trade  school  of 
high-school  grade — that  is,  in  the  sense  of  beginning  with  pupils  who  have  graduated  from 
the  grammar  school  and  continuing  with  a  four-year  course.  The  trade  school  is  not  a 
high-school  problem  in  the  above  sense,  and  I  do  not  believe  there  is  any  possibility  of  con- 
verting our  manual-training  high  schools  into  trade  schools. 

The  trade  school  looks  to  early  entrance  upon  an  industrial  pursuit  with 
an  equipment  of  specialized  skill  and  technical  knowledge  on  the  part  of  its 
graduates  that  shall  make  it  possible  for  them  to  materially  reduce  the  time 
ordinarily  required  to  learn  a  skilled  trade.  It  has  a  minimum  requirement  on 
the  literary  and  scientific  side  and  a  maximum  requirement  on  the  side  of  skill. 
While  it  may  look  to  Individual,  social,  and  mental  development  as  well  as  more 
skill  in  execution,  it  places  its  greatest  emphasis  on  the  making  of  good  work- 
men. It  gives  a  minimum  of  academic  training  and  a  maximum  of  ready 
skill  in  processes  of  work  in  specific  trades.  Trade  schools  are  not  expected 
to  develop  leaders  and  furnish  foremen  and  managers  of  industrial  processes 
so  much  as  to  train  the  rank  and  file  of  the  great  army  of  industrial  workers 
where  such  training  cannot  be  satisfactorily  had  under  commercial  conditions. 

Dr.  Parmenter,  of  Boston,  writes: 

I  am  inclined  to  leave  out  the  term  "high"  in  this  connection,  for  an  efficient  trade 
school  will  concern  itself  mainly,  in  the  case  of  an  individual  pupil,  with  the  particular  line 
of  industry  for  which  he  desires  to  fit  himself.  The  instruction  must  necessarily  be  adapted 
largely  to  giving  knowledge  of  the  principles  involved  in  a  particular  trade  and  skill  in 
applying  the  principles  and  processes.  Little,  if  any  instruction  will  be  given  that  can 
properly  be  called  high-school  work  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  that  term.  The  above  answer 
implies  that  I  think  the  trade  school  should  differ  very  radically  from  the  manual-training 
high  school.  If  it  does  not  it  will  be  an  unnecessary  and  indefensible  duplication  of 
educational  machinery. 

President  Charles  H.  Howe,  of  the  Case  School  of  Applied  Science  makes 
it  clear  that  trades  schools  are  units  separate  and  distinct  from  other  secondary 
schools.  He  says: 

I  believe  in  trade  schools  most  thoroly  and  think  they  are  coming  as  part  of  the  educa- 
tional system  of  every  city,  but  when  they  come,  they  are  to  be  trade  schools,  pure  and  sim- 
ple, the  object  bejng  not  to  give  an  education  to  the  mind  but  to  teach  a  trade.  I  think  it 
will  be  possible  in  these  schools  to  fit  boys  to  become  journeymen  so  that  they  can  do  a 
man's  work  when  they  graduate.  A  trades  school  will  be  in  a  building  which  is  exactly 
like  a  shop.  It  will  have  the  same  kind  of  machinery  and  as  many  different  kinds  as  the 
best-equipped  shops.  The  teaching  will  be  done  by  foremen  who  are  taken  out  of  the 
shops  and  who  do  all  the  teaching  that  apprentices  in  the  shops  receive.  This  school  will 
manufacture  goods  as  a  shop  does  and  its  product  will  be  sold  in  the  market  as  is  the  pro- 
duct of  the  shop.  Some  manufacturers  would  claim  that  this  was  not  a  school  but  a  shop. 
I  am  perfectly  willing  that  it  should  be  called  a  shop,  but  I  would  still  claim  that  it  is  a 
school  because  its  principal  object  is  to  teach,  while  the  principal  object  of  the  shop  is  to 
turn  out  the  manufactured  product.  A  trade  school  cannot  take  students  under  sixteen  or 
seventeen  years  of  age,  because  if  it  does,  its  graduates  will  be  so  young  that  they  cannot 
secure  positions  as  journeymen.  In  most  states  the  limit  of  school  age  is  fourteen  years. 
I  should  think  that  there  ought  to  be  intermediate  industrial  schools  established  for  boys 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  like  the  continuation  schools  of  Germany.  In  these  schools  the 
boys  would  be  given  a  little  instruction  in  practical  arithmetic  and  they  should  be  given  a 


io8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

great  deal  of  drawing  and  handwork.  I  should  say  that  every  boy  in  these  schools  should 
have  a  thoro  course  in  all  the  branches  of  handwork  without  regard  to  the  particular  trade 
he  intended  to  enter  and  then,  at  the  age  of  sixteen  or  whatever  age  was  fixed  upon  as  the 
proper  time  for  him  to  enter  the  trade  school,  he  would  begin  the  study  of  his  particular 
trade.  The  training  given  him  in  the  manual-training  school  would  of  course  be  of  great 
benefit  after  he  began  his  special  work.  The  broader  knowledge  of  all  the  trades,  or  a 
number  of  them,  which  he  would  get  in  the  manual-training  work,  would  fit  him  for  a  better 
comprehension  of  the  particular  work  that  he  was  to  do,  and,  I  think,  in  many  cases,  would 
aid  him  in  later  years  to  become  a  foreman  or  a  master  himself.  I  should  say  that  the  hand- 
work which  I  have  mentioned  and  the  trade-school  work  should  be  entirely  distinct  from 
the  high  school.  The  objects  of  the  two  institutions  are  entirely  different.  The  industrial 
school  which  I  have  compared  to  the  continuation  school  would  of  course  be  a  part  of  the 
trade  school,  because  the  boy  would  go  from  it  into  the  trade  school  as  soon  as  his  age  per- 
mitted 

The  responses  seem  to  have  established  the  fact  that  vocational  instruction 
leading  to  trades  should  begin  below  the  high-school  age.  We  must  expect  the 
larger  number  of  pupils  to  enter  trades  school  from  grades  below  the  present 
high-school  period,  and  we  must  devise  means  for  attracting  and  holding  them 
in  school.  The  investigations  of  James  F.  McElroy,  consulting  engineer  of  the 
Consolidated  Car  Heating  Co.  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  not  only  clearly  point  out  the 
educational  qualifications  of  men  who  are  in  trades,  but  also  emphasize  that 
a  trades  school  cannot  have  the  academic  requirements  of  our  present  high 
school.  He  says: 

I  have  had  inquiry  made  of  over  100  workmen  composed  largely  of  machinists  and 
hence,  representing  a  grade  of  intelligence  higher  than  the  average.  The  inquiry  has  devel- 
oped two  facts  in  which  we  are  concerned  at  this  time.  First,  out  of  102  men  there  was  not 
to  be  found  a  single  graduate  of  a  high  school  nor  a  person  who  ever  attended  as  a  pupil 
in  a  high -school  course.  Second,  out  of  102  men  I  found  only  seven  who  had  completed 
the  course  in  the  grammar  schools.  From  this  it  appears  that  the  education  of  all  of  these 
mechanics  was  limited  to  such  education  as  is  furnished  by  the  grammar  schools  and  that 
93  per  cent,  of  them  belong  to  that  class  of  pupils  that  drop  out  of  school  before  completing 
the  grammar-school  course.  On  the  inquiry  of  other  people  interested  in  manufacturing 
I  am  informed  that  approximately  the  same  condition  exists  among  people  engaged  in  trades 
in  their  employ. 

In  this  connection  Arthur  L.  Williston,  director  of  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn, 
states: 

In  my  judgment,  it  is  unwise — I  would  almost  say,  impossible — to  make  any  compro- 
mise between  a  school  where  economic  considerations  govern  and  are  supreme  and  a  school 
where  accepted  educational  notions  govern.  For  this  reason,  I  believe  any  compromise 
between  manual  training  and  trade  instruction  is  impracticable. 

Dr.  Balliet  expresses  the  same  thought  when  he  says: 

It  seems  to  me  it  will  never  be  possible  to  teach  trades  in  a  technical  high  school. 
The  standard  of  admission  would  be  too  high  for  pupils  .who  are  to  learn  a  trade,  if  it  were 
made  uniform  with  the  general  standard  of  admission  of  the  present  high  school;  it  would 
shut  out  fully  80  per  cent,  of  those  who  ought  to  learn  a  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
very  great  difficulties  in  having  two  standards  of  admission  to  the  same  school,  as  ever) 
practical  schoolman  will  appreciate.  To  teach  trades  in  a  technical  high  school,  therefore, 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL       109 

would  mean  practically  that  the  school  should  consist  of  two  institutions  namely,  a  tech- 
nical high  school  and  a  trade  school,  in  one  building.  It  is  better  to  organize  trade  schools 
as  separate  schools  than  to  try  to  unite  them  with  technical  high  schools. 

The  Springfield  Technical  High  School  hacTa  course  in  special  shop  prac- 
tice. Experience  in  this  city  goes  to  prove  that  such  a  course  is  not  successful 
when  connected  with  a  technical  high  school.  Principal  Warner  writes  as 
follows: 

While  our  experience  proves  the  attractiveness  of  practical  high-school  work  of  a 
more  general  and  scientific  character  than  trades  teaching,  it  by  no  means  proves 
that  trades-school  work  itself  in  our  high  schools  would  prove  equally  attractive.  The 
experience  on  this  point  that  I  refer  to  is  the  history  of  our  so-called  C  course  in  the  Tech- 
nical High  School.  We  intended  to  make  this  approach  very  closely  to  a  trades  course.  It 
was  very  far  from  successful.  Boys  who  entered  it  in  the  freshman  year  left  it  for  the  more 
strictly  academic  courses  along  the  way,  or  left  school,  so  that  by  the  senior  year  we  had  very 
few,  and  sometimes  none  at  all,  to  graduate  from  that  course.  This  seems  to  me  to  prove 
conclusively  that  in  Springfield  and  other  cities  like  Springfield,  the  pupils  who  get  into 
our  schools  under  the  present  standard  of  admission,  even  those  pupils  who  have  a  very 
decided  practical  bent,  do  not  belong  to  the  class  for  whom  the  trades  high  school  is  to  be 
organized. 

VIII.  Evening  trade  instruction  will  be  an  important  possibility  of  sec- 
ondary industrial  schools.  There  are  young  men  in  business  or  in  shops  who 
would  profit  by  elementary  technical  training  but  who  cannot  take  advantage  of 
such  opportunities  during  the  working  day.  One  of  the  most  important  needs 
which  these  schools  can  fill  is  to  better  the  opportunities  of  the  youth  already 
engaged  in  given  vocations.  The  decline  of  the  apprenticeship  system  incident 
to  the  subdivision  of  manufacturing  processes  has  made  it  almost  impossible 
for  mechanics  to  secure  a  broad  and  generous  training.  There  is  a  crying 
need  among  semi-skilled  working  classes  for  industrial  education;  and  the 
technical  high  school  would  be  able  to  offer  during  the  evening  both  practical 
and  technical  trade  courses  to  men  and  women  already  engaged  in  a  given 
trade. 

Dr.  Balliet,  who  was  the  first  school  superintendent  in  the  country  to  recog- 
nise the  value  of  public  evening  trade  schools  by  establishing  one,  writes  as 
follows: 

Technical  high  schools  can  be  utilized  for  trade-school  pupils  by  organizing  trade- 
school  classes  in  their  shops  as  evening  schools,  more  particularly  for  men  already  employed 
at  their  trades.  There  is  no  reason  why,  in  the  shops  of  every  technical  high  school,  there 
should  not  be  organized  a  trade  school  running  every  night  of  the  week.  I  see  no  reason 
either  why  the  shops  of  these  schools  should  not  be  open  for  trade-school  instruction, 
between,  say,  four  o'clock  and  six,  to  boys  attending  the  elementary  schools,  and  from 
half-past  five  o'clock  to  seven  for  men  engaged  at  their  trades  in  day  time.  Under  the 
eight-hour  law  many  men  are  free  at  five  o'clock  and  could  attend  a  trade  school  until 
seven;  others  could  come  after  seven  and  attend  until  nine  or  ten.  In  this  way  the  shops 
of  a  technical  high  school  would  be  utilized  twelve  hours  out  of  every  twenty-four.  From 
a  business  point  of  view,  as  well  as  from  an  educational  point  of  view,  this,  it  seems  to  me, 
would  be  a  wise  policy.  It  would  make  the  instruction  economical,  make  the  school 
popular,  and  make  it  a  powerful,  uplifting  force  in  the  community. 


HO  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

The  pioneer  work  of  the  Springfield  evening  schools  of  trades  operating 
in  connection  with  the  day  technical  school  has  resulted  in  the  organization 
of  similar  evening  schools  in  various  sections  of  the  country,  e.  g.,  Cambridge 
Mass.,  New  York  City,  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  Providence,  R.  I. 

IX.  In  the  previous  discussions  the  subcommittee  has  apparently  omitted 
any  reference  to  work  for  girls:  In  many  of  the  institutions  which  have  been 
mentioned,  work  for  girls  is  as  prominent  a  feature  as  work  for  boys.  The 
literature  of  industrial  and  technical  education  is  apt  to  emphasize  the  necessity 
of  industrial  and  technical  training  for  boys  and  to  suggest  courses  of  study 
adapted  to  their  needs.  There  is  no  intention  here  to  ignore  the  problem  of 
girls'  training,  and  much  that  has  already  been  stated  can  be  applied  to  the 
work  for  girls.  The  committee  sees  no  reason  why  the  technical  high  school, 
intermediate  industrial  school,  and  even  some  trade  schools,  should  not  include 
courses  for  girls.  Naturally  the  courses  of  study  would  differ,  but  the  plan 
would  be  the  same.  These  courses  should,  in  many  respects,  be  different  from 
those  given  to  boys.  There  are  some  subjects  which  are  studied  very  largely 
for  general  knowledge.  These  are  as  valuable  for  girls  as  for  boys,  but  while 
the  boys  take  a  large  amount  of  mathematics,  the  girls  might  be  taught  sub- 
jects which  will  be  of  more  direct  advantage  to  them.  The  girls  in^our  schools 
will  be  the  wives  and  mothers  of  the  next  generation  and  the  courses  of  study 
should  be  so  laid  out  that  these  girls  will  lead  happier  and  richer  lives  and  will 
be  more  successful  as  the  future  homemakers  of  our  cities.  If  the  maintenance 
of  a  finer  order  of  home  is  a  matter  of  the  deepest  concern  to  every  member 
of  the  community,  it  logically  follows  that  the  appropriate  training  of  the  mother 
— the  homemaker — is  essential  to  the  general  welfare.  We  shall  be  wise,  then, 
to  test  every  plan  for  the  education  of  women,  not  merely  with  questions  of 
immediate  expediency  or  of  personal  advantage,  but  always  with  the  thought 
of  the  larger  contribution  to  the  common  good,  and  the  higher  function  which 
woman  can  never  surrender. 

A  large  class  of  girls  whose  elementary  education  is  incomplete,  are  in 
imperative  need  of  such  industrial  education  as  will  enable  them  to  earn  a 
living  wage.  .  Thru  their  self-maintenance,  furthermore,  the  standard  of  the 
family  life  will  be  immensely  advanced. 

The  aim  of  the  courses  for  girls  is  twofold:  (i)  It  is  to  enable  them,  thru 
the  right  sort  of  homemaking  training,  to  enter  homes  of  their  own,  able  to 
assume  the  most  sacred  duties  with  an  intelligent  preparation,  and  to  perpetu- 
ate the  type  of  home  that  will  bring  about  the  highest  standard  of  health  and 
morals.  (2)  The  courses  of  instruction  should  also  train  for  work  in  distinctly 
feminine  occupations.  The  time  is  perhaps  not  far  away  when  every  girl  will 
learn  some  specific  kind  of  remunerative  skilled  work,  just  as  we  expect  boys 
to  do.  This  does  not  mean  that  married  women  will  follow  a  vocation  outside 
of  the  home,  save  in  exceptional  cases.  It  does  mean  that  girls  will  generally 
earn  a  livelihood  in  some  skilled  work  during  the  three,  six,  or  eight  years 
after  leaving  school  and  prior  to  marriage,  and  will  do  so  for  their  own  and 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL       in 

the  good  of  society;  that  this  earning  power  will  raise  the  standards  of  living 
in  their  parents'  families  and  give  the  impulse  to  a  higher  level  when  the  girls 
marry  and  start  their  own  homes;  and  further,  that  this  possession  of  skill  in 
remunerative  labor  will,  after  marriage,  afford  protection  and  support  when 
a  family  loses  its  male  head. 

Professor  Andrews,  of  the  Department  of  Domestic  Economy  of  Teachers 
College,  New  York  City,  presents  the  following  figures- 

In  the  United  States  one  married  woman  in  five  is  a  widow  and  is  responsible,  as  was 
her  deceased  husband,  for  her  own  support  and  usually  for  that  of  her  children.  Woman's 
present  relation  to  remunerative  employment  in  the  United  States  is  shown  by  two  facts: 
(i)  Of  women  oyer  10  years  old,  18.8  per  cent,  were,  in  1900,  engaged  in  remunerative 
employment.  (2)  Of  the  377  lines  of  employment  for  men  and  women  listed  in  the  census, 
women  had,  in  1900,  entered  all  but  7,  in  greater  or  less  numbers.  Women  are  wage-earners, 
then,  already,  and  if  men's  training  is  to  be  considered,  women's  must  be  also. 

Taking  these  two  points  of  view  together,  it  is  clear  that  industrial  educa- 
tion for  girls  should  embrace  those  subjects  which  the  women  should  under- 
stand and  which  will  be  of  use  in  life.  Dressmaking,  millinery,  and  cooking 
should  be  taught,  not  only  with  the  idea  of  enabling  girls  to  direct  a  household 
in  a  better  or  more  economical  way,  but  also  to  make  them  proficient  enough  so 
that  they  can  earn  a  living  if  economic  conditions  demand  it.  It  is  increas- 
ingly evident  not  only  that  the  demands  of  modern  life  are  thrusting  into  the 
background  the  instruction  that  will  be  centered  in  the  home,  but  also  that 
the  women  are  entering  the  industries.  With  the  disappearance  of  industrial 
activities  from  the  home,  the  increase  of  apartment  houses,  the  multiplication 
of  ready-made  conveniences  which  have  greatly  modified  the  education  of 
girls,  there  has  been  an  accompanying  increase  in  the  number  of  women  who 
are  obliged  to  earn  their  living  which  makes  it  desirable  that  girls  be  trained 
in  some  special  occupation.  Advocates  of  industrial  education  for  girls  feel 
that  training  for  efficiency  in  any  line  of  industry  will  make  for  better  women 
and  better  homes.  In  short,  the  educator  is  confronted  with  a  twofold  prob- 
lem, as  far  as  the  education  of  girls  is  concerned:  (i)  Opportunity  must  be 
given  for  women  who  are  never  to  become  wage-earners  to  gain  a  knowledge 
of  industrial  conditions  and  processes  through  the  introduction  of  technical 
and  scientific  schools  and  courses.  (2)  Opportunity  must  be  given  for  women 
who  are  obliged  to  become  wage-earners  at  an  early  age  to  receive  training 
which  will  enable  them  to  enter  some  specific  industry  where  continued 
development  is  possible. 

A  brief  description  of  the  Boston  Girls'  High  School  of  Practical  Arts  will 
point  out  howgirls  are  trained  to  meet  these  two  needs:  The  school  has  a 
four-year  academic  course  in  which  the  girls  receive  a  general  education  which 
better  prepares  them  for  future  duties  in  the  home  and  in  society.  The  aca- 
demic departments  are  English,  history,  art,  mathematics,  science,  and  modern 
foreign  languages.  The  industrial  department  presents  household  science  and 
arts,  sewing,  dressmaking,  and  millinery.  The  instruction  "in  the  practical 


112  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

arts  aims  to  give  not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  various  processes  in  each  industry 
studied,  but  also  a  comprehensive  understanding  of  these  processes  in  relation 
to  the  entire  scheme  of  work.  This  instruction  should  insure  for  the  girls 
who  seek  employment,  advancement  to  places  of  responsibility  in  the  industries 
open  to  them.  The  purpose  of  the  art  department  is  the  cultivation  of  taste 
thru  a  study  of  the  principles  of  beauty  and  its  application  to  the  problems 
of  dress  and  the  home.  The  course  in  mathematics  has  two  distinct  purposes: 
to  train  the  girls  to  think  logically  and  clearly,  and  to  enable  them  to  solve 
simple  problems  intelligently.  A  woman  should  be  able  to  write  down  her 
household  accounts  accurately  as  well  as  to  understand  the  pinciples  of  alge- 
braic and  geometric  problems.  Principal  Weaver  of  this  school  writes  as 
follows: 

A  general  course  for  all  girls  is  given  during  the  first  year.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
second  year  they  may  choose  for  their  industrial  course  which  runs  thru  three  years, 
either  domestic  science,  dressmaking,  or  millinery.  While  especial  attention  is  given  to 
this  chosen  industrial  subject,  training  sufficient  for  home  needs  is  given  in  the  other  two. 
In  the  millinery  and  dressmaking  courses  an  effort  is  made  to  introduce  shop  methods; 
a  study  is  made  of  the  materials  used  and  of  their  cost;  record  slips  showing  the  amount 
of  material,  price,  and  time  given  to  the  work  are  kept  with  each  piece  of  work.  The  work 
of  the  drawing-room  is  closely  related  to  that  of  the  shops.  Before  a  garment,  or  hat,  is 
begun,  a  drawing  is  made  giving  full  details;  the  design  taking  into  consideration  the  figure 
of  the  girl,  the  quality,  and  kind  of  material  to  be  used.  This  design  is  taken  to  the  shop 
and  serves  as  a  working-drawing.  When  the  garment  is  completed  another  drawing  is 
made  of  the  product.  The  same  plan  is  pursued  in  the  millinery  course.  The  pupils 
taking  domestic  science  make  drawings  along  the  lines  of  house-building,  furnishings, 
decorations,  etc.  We  fully  realize  that  drawing  is  the  basis  of  our  shopwork.  Inasmuch 
as  this  school  has  been  in  existence  less  than  two  years  I  am  unable  to  give  any  information 
touching  graduates.  I  have,  however,  great  confidence  that  girls  who  finish  this  course 
will  find  employment  at  fair  wages,  and  be  able  to  advance  rapidly  to  good  positions. 
Our  academic  work,  as  well  as  the  drawing,  correlates  with  the  shop.  Descriptions  of 
various  processes,  with  materials  in  hand,  are  required  as  lessons  in  expression  in  good 
English.  The  chemistry  deals  with  the  questions  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  The  aim 
of  these  courses  is  to  set  before  the  girl  the  highest  ideals  of  home  life;  to  train  her  in  all 
that  pertains  to  practical  housekeeping;  to  cultivate  good  taste  in  furnishings  and  decora- 
tion; to  give  thoro  instruction  in  sewing  as  a  foundation  for  dressmaking  and  millinery 
V  by  such  training  as  shall  lead  the  pupil  toward  the  highest  standards  in  the  selection  and 
making  of  her  own  garments  and  give  her  the  ability  to  plan  and  execute  for  others. 

The  Cleveland  Technical  High  School  has  a  department  of  industrial-art 
training  for  girls.  The  nature  of  the  studies  and  the  purposes  in  view  are  so 
different  as  to  demand  a  separation  of  the  girls  from  the  boys.  There  is 
therefore  organized  within  one  building  a  boys'  school  and  a  girls'  school. 
The  purpose  of  the  work  in  domestic  science  is  threefold:  (r)  To  teach  all 
subjects  pertaining  to  the  care  and  duties  of  a  home,  that  girls  may  be  prepared 
for  practical  housekeeping;  (2)  to  teach  all  theory  relating  to  the  above  sub- 
jects as  applied  science,  that  girls  may  acquire  intellectual  development  as 
well  as  practical  skill ;  (3)  to  teach  institutional  cookery  and  kitchen  manage- 
ment as  trade  subjects,  that  students  may  be  prepared  for  catering  as  a  voca- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL.       113 

tion.  To  attain  the  end  of  training  for  housekeeping  all  work  must  neces- 
sarily be  very  practical  and  comprehensive.  The  home  is  a  complex  institu- 
tion and  its  management  involves  the  study  and  practice  of  preparation  of 
foods,  cooking  and  serving  entire  meals,  washing  and  ironing  clothes,  cleaning, 
first  aid  to  the  injured,  care  of  invalids  and  children,  household  accounting, 
expenditure  of  income,  marketing,  house-planning,  sanitation,  household 
furnishing,  and  decoration.  All  these  must  be  taught  in  the  most  specific 
and  practical  ways.  Each  student  must  be  taught  not  merely  about  doing 
household  duties,  but  to  do  them.  An  attempt  is  made  to  correlate  with  the 
technical  subjects  all  academic  subjects  included  in  the  course  for  girls.  In 
arithmetic,  problems  are  given  involving  the  standard  weights  and  measures 
used  in  cookery.  The  student  is  drilled  in  dividing  the  quantities  used  in  the 
ordinary  recipe  that  she  may  appreciate  the  relation  of  the  individual  to  the 
practical  recipe.  The  cost  of  various  foods  at  different  seasons  is  computed 
in  order  to  obtain  an  estimate  of  the  average  cost.  The  keeping  of  household 
accounts  and  divisions  of  the  family  income  are  also  problems  to  be  solved. 
Exact  computation  of  food  values  and  the  grouping  of  these  foods  to  form 
well-balanced  menus  involve  mathematical  problems  that  are  studied  with 
profit  to  the  housekeeper  in  the  arithmetic  class.  The  course  in  chemistry 
is  directly  correlated  with  domestic  science,  and  its  aim  is  to  give  such  experi- 
ments as  will  be  of  practical  value  to  the  girls  after  finishing  school.  For 
instance,  if  eggs  are  cooked  in  the  kitchen  laboratory,  during  the  same  week 
their  composition  and  properties  are  ascertained  in  the  chemical  laboratory— 
hence,  the  theory  of  foods  in  the  second-year  cooking  classes  deals  largely 
with  food  composition  and  food  manufacture.  Domestic-science  subjects 
are  often  given  as  themes  in  the  English  classes.  See  also  the  courses  in  domes- 
tic and  applied  arts  for  ways  in  which  these  are  correlated  with  domestic 
science.  In  short,  all  technical  subjects  involving  homemaking  are  taken  as 
the  basis  of  the  course  for  girls,  and  the  rest  of  the  studies  are  grouped  around 
these.  The  lunchroom  in  connection  with  the  school  affords  excellent  oppor- 
tunity for  the  girls  desiring  to  specialize  in  institutional  cookery.  After  having 
learned  the  fundamental  principles  of  cookery,  the  student  may  go  into  the 
kitchen  of  the  lunchroom  and  prepare  food  in  large  quantities  and  also  study 
the  management  and  plan  of  conducting  such  an  institution.  The  aim  in 
domestic  art  is  to  give  such  training  as  will  enable  girls,  as  they  grow  to  woman- 
hood, to  appreciate  the  practical,  economic,  and  artistic  value  of  various 
materials  in  their  application  to  dress  and  home  furnishings.  The  course 
includes  plain  sewing,  the  making  of  outfits  for  use  in  the  departments  of  domes- 
tic science  and  domestic  art,  undergarments,  shirt-waist  suits,  simple  summer 
dresses,  and  millinery.  Principles  of  handwork  in  the  way  of  rolled  edges, 
setting-in  of  lace,  hand-run  tucks  and  elementary  embroidery  are  introduced 
and  applied  to  underwear.  Original  designs  made  by  the  pupils  are  used  for 
this  work  and  in  the  decoration  of  the  table  linen  for  the  dining-room  of  the 
domestic-science  department.  The  course  in  spring  and  "fall  millinery  is 


114  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

provided  for  girls  who  have  learned  some  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 
sewing.  Millinery  affords  the  girls  a  broad  expression  of  individuality  and 
aims  to  create  an  appreciation  of  artistic  color  combinations  and  appropriate- 
ness. The  subject  is  closely  connected  with  the  courses  in  dressmaking  and 
applied  art  and  consists  of  talks  on  materials  used  in  millinery,  wiring  hats, 
making  buckram  and  straw  hats,  wire  frames,  facings,  building  bows  and  cov- 
ering frames,  renovation  of  old  material,  and  trimming  hats.  Attention  is 
given  to  economy,  simplicity,  suitability,  and  the  cultivation  of  artistic  taste 
in  all  lines  of  work.  The  work  in  applied  arts  correlates  in  very  definite  and 
practical  ways  with  dressmaking,  millinery,  domestic  science,  and  the  mechanic 
arts  and  crafts  and  with  the  many  occasions  in  daily  life  in  which  an  intelli- 
gent appreciation  of  fitness  and  beauty  add  greatly  to  vocational  success  or 
personal  happiness.  Complete  courses  in  plain  and  hand  sewing,  machine 
sewing,  spring  and  fall  millinery,  and  the  applied  arts  are  available  to  women 
in  evening  classes.  Plain  cooking  and  whatever  allied  courses  may  be  called 
for  by  a  sufficient  number  will  also  be  within  the  scope  of  the  night  school. 


MINORITY  REPORT 

As  a  member  of  the  Subcommittee  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education 
in  Secondary  Schools  I  have  signed  the  foregoing  report;  but  while  I  agree 
in  the  main  with  the  other  members  of  the  committee,  I  find  that  my  observa- 
tion and  experience  constrain  me  to  take  exception  to  the  definition  of  the 
"technical  high  school"  as  it  appears  in  the  main  report.  In  my  opinion 
technical  high  schools  should  occupy  the  field  just  below  that  of  the  engineering 
schools  or  technical  colleges  without  losing  their  naturally  close  relation  to 
them.  To  give  them  this  relation  is  not  necessarily  to  make  them  merely 
preparatory  schools  for  such  higher  institutions.  Rightly  directed  they  may 
give  thoro  training  for  industrial  service  in  the  lower  sphere  without  losing 
sight  of  the  possible  engineering  student.  On  the  other  hand,  to  deny  them 
all  preparatory-school  functions  is  to  specialize  them  to  such  an  extent  that 
they  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  become  a  large  element  in  the  secondary-school 
system  of  the  country.  In  all  cities  where  it  is  possible  to  organize  highly 
differential  types  of  secondary-school  work  in  separate  schools,  designating 
them  so  that  they  will  assist  parents  and  pupils  in  making  a  wise  choice,  the 
specialized  technical  high  school,  as  contemplated  in  the  definition  to  which 
I  would  take  exception,  may  be  of  great  service;  but  my  strong  conviction 
is  that  the  development  of  secondary  technical  schools  in  cities  of  moderate 
size  and  in  the  country  at  large  might  receive  a  serious  set-back  if  a  broader 
definition  of  their  function  is  not  recognized.  In  fact,  a  few  technical  high 
schools  are  already  successfully  carried  on  under  this  broader  definition. 
Owing  to  local  conditions  they  could  not  have  been  organized  under  any 
other  definition.  They  offer  an  encouraging  example  to  other  communities 
similarly  situated.  Their  existence  should  be  made  consistent  with  this 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN  THE  SECONDARY  SCHOOL        115 

report  without  necessarily  compromising  the  point  of  view  which  recognizes 
the  value  of  a  more  highly  specialized  form  of  secondary  technical  education 
for  certain  other  communities.  Furthermore  it  is  generally  recognized  that 
the  open-at-the-top  policy  is  a  natural  characteristic  of  American  education. 
I  am  not  able  to  see  in  the  existing  educational  situation  any  universal  condition 
that  demands  that  all  secondary  technical  schools  should  frankly  abandon 
preparatory  work  for  higher  institutions  and  especially  for  higher  technical 
schools  or  for  engineering  courses  in  college  or  university.  I  therefore  offer 
the  following 

DEFINITION 

The  secondary  technical  school  or  the  technical  high  school  is  a  school  of 
secondary  grade,  the  distinctive  tho  not  sole  purpose  of  which  is  to  prepare 
its  students  for  industrial  leadership — i.e.,  for  positions  of  great  responsibility 
in  industrial  life,  requiring  technical  knowledge,  tho  not  so  profound  as  that 
of  the  engineer,  and  a  certain  skill,  tho  not  so  highly  specialized  as  that  ot 
the  skilled  mechanic.  In  such  a  school  much  of  the  instruction  deals  not  only 
with  the  important  manual  operations  but  also  with  those  principles  of  science 
and  mathematics  and  their  direct  applications  in  industrial  work  which  will 
help  to  prepare  a  student  for  successfully  mastering  the  more  fundamental 
processes  and  problems  of  those  groups  of  industries  which  the  school  is 
designed  to  reach.  It  assumes  to  be  the  finishing  school  for  large  numbers  of 
boys  and  girls  and  therefore  must  contain  in  its  curriculum  the  essentials  of 
those  studies  which  give  breadth  of  view  and  inspire  to  self-improvement. 
To  many  of  its  students  it  may  open  up  new  prospects  and  reveal  a  capacity 
to  realize  them.  If  any  considerable  number  of  students  in  such  a  school 
wish  to  prepare  for  continuing  their  studies  in  higher  institutions,  special 
provision  should  be  made  for  "them  without  interfering  with  the  distinctive 
aim  of  the  school. 

CHARLES  F.  WARNER 


n6  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 


A  SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY  ON  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

NOTE 

In  preparing  this  bibliography  of  the  literature  on  Industrial  Education 
to  accompany  the  report  on  "The  Place  of  Industries  in  Public  Education," 
the  principal  aim  has  been  to  select  the  most  serviceable  books,  reports,  and 
periodical  contributions  dealing  with  the  various  aspects  of  the  subjects  which 
are  considered  in  the  report. 

While  but  few  of  the  writings  listed  deal  exclusively  with  European  Indus- 
trial education,  many  foreign  references  and  illustrations  occur  in  the  literature 
dealing  with  the  American  phase  of  the  problem. 

In  order  to  keep  the  lists  within  reasonable  limits  only  books  published 
since  1892  and  articles  from  periodicals  and  society  proceedings  since  1900 
have  been  selected.  The  list  has  been  revised  to  July,  1909. 

BOOKS 
ADDAMS,  JANE.     Democracy  and  Social  Ethics.     New  York:   Macmillan,  1905.     281  pp. 

Chap.  vi. 
Apprenticeship  and  Skilled  Employment  Association.     Trades  for  London  Boys  and  How 

to  Enter   Them.     London:    Longmans,    1908.     170  pp.     Trades  for  London  Girls 

and  How  to  Enter  Them.     London:    Longmans,  1909.     145  pp. 
CARLTON,  F.  C.     Education  and  Industrial  Evolution.  .  New  York:    Macmillan,   1908. 

320  pp. 
CHAMBERLAIN,  A.     Standards  in  Education.     New  York:    American  Book  Co.,  1908. 

265  pp. 
CREASEY,   C.  H.     Technical  Education  in  Evening  Schools.     London:    Sonnenschein, 

1905.     309  pp.- 
DEWEY,  JOHN.     The  School  and  Society.     Chicago:    The  University  of  Chicago  Press, 

1900.     129  pp 
BUTTON  AND  SNEDDEN.     The  Administration  of  Public  Education  in  the  United  States. 

New  York:     Macmillan,    1908.     601   pp.      Chap,   xxii,   "The    Administration    of 

Vocational  Education";    Chap,  xxvii,  "The  Administration  of  Evening  and  Con- 
tinuation Schools." 
GORDON,   MRS.   OGILVIE.     A   Handbook  of  Employments.     Aberdeen,   Scotland,   1908. 

444  PP- 
HANUS,  PAUL.     Beginnings  of  Industrial  Education.     Boston:    Houghton  Mifflin  Co., 

1908.     199  pp. 
HOWARD,  E.  D.     The  Cause  and  Extent  of  the  Recent  Industrial  Progress  in  Germany. 

Boston:   Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1907.       147  pp. 
MONROE,  PAUL.     A  Brief  Course  in  the  History  of  Education.     New  York:   Macmillan, 

1908.     Chap,    xiii,    pp.    393-397. 

PERSON,  H.  S.     Industrial  Education.     Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Co.,  1907. 
SADLER,  M.  E.     Continuation  Schools  in  England  and  Elsewhere;    Their  Place  in  the 

Educational  System  of  an  Industrial  and  Commercial  State.     Manchester,  England: 

Sherret  &  Hughes. 
SHAD  WELL,    ARTHUR.     Industrial   Efficiency.     New   York:     Longmans,    1906.     2   vols. 

346  and  488  pp.     Chaps,  xvi  and  xvii. 
Teachers  College  Record.     "The  Elementary  School  Curriculum  with  a  Course  in  Manual 

Training."     New  York:  The  Columbia  University  Press,  1908.     526  pp. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


117 


VANDERLIP,  F.  A.     Business  and  Education.     New  York:  Duffield  &  Co.,  1907.     563  pp. 
WARE    FABIAN.     Education  Foundations  of  Trade  and  Society.     New  York:  Appleton, 
1901. 

UNITED  STATES  GOVERNMENT  REPORTS 

"Agriculture  and  Industrial  Training."     Report,  Commissioner  of  Education,  1908.    Vol. 

I,  p.  125. 
"Apprenticeship  System,  The,  in  Its  Relation  to  Industrial  Education."     By  CARROLL 

D.  WRIGHT.     Bulletin  No.  6,  Bureau  of  Education,  1908.     116  pp. 
"Conditions  of  Entrance  to  the  Principal  Trades."     Bulletin  No.  67,  Bureau  of  Labor, 

1906.     100  pp. 
"Conference  on  Industrial  Education  by  State  Superintendents  of  Public  Instruction." 

Report,  Commissioner  of  Education,  1908.     Vol.  I,  pp.  11-14. 
"Continuation  School  in  the  United  States,  The."     By  ARTHUR  J.  JONES.     Bulletin 

No.  I,  Dept.  of  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education,  1907.     157  pp. 
"Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School,  The."     By  E.  L.  THORNDIKE.     Bulletin  No.  4 

Dept.^f  Interior,  Bureau  of  Education,  1907.     63  pp. 
"Federal,  Municipal,  and  State  Aid  for  Industrial  Education."     Report,  Commissioner 

of  Education,  1908.     Vol.  I,  pp.  84-89. 
"French  Technical  and  Industrial  Schools."     Report,  Bureau  of  Education,  1907.     Vol. 

I,  pp.  165-67. 

"German  Views  of  American  Education,  with  Particular  Reference  to  Industrial  Develop- 
ment."    (From  Reports  of  Royal  Prussian  Industrial  Commission,  1904,  collated 

by  Wm.  Hailmann.)     Bulletin  No.  2,  U.S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1906.     55  pp. 
"Hand  and  Machine  Labor."     ijth  Annual  Bulletin,  Bureau  of  Labor,  2  vols.,  1899. 

1,604  PP- 
"Industrial  Education  in  Canada  under  the  MacDonald  Fund."     Report,   Bureau  of 

Education,  1907.     Vol.  I,  pp.  225-40. 
"Industrial  Education  in  the  City  Schools."     Report,  Bureau  of  Education,  1907.     Vol. 

I,  pp.  428-32. 
"Industrial  Education  in   Germany."     Special  Consular  Reports,   Dept.   of  Commerce 

and  Labor,  1905.     Vol.  XXXIII,  147  pp. 
"Statistics  of  Manual  and  Industrial  Training  Schools."     Report,  Bureau  of  Education, 

1909.     Vol.  II,  chap,  xxiii,  pp.  1161-1201. 
"Trade  and  Technical   Education."     ijth   Annual  Bulletin,    Bureau  of  Labor,    1902. 

i,333  PP- 
"Wages  and  Hours  of  Labor,  1890-1905."     Bulletin  No.  65,  Bureau  of  Labor,  1906. 

STATE  AND  CITY  REPORTS 

"Apprentices,  School  for."     Chicago:    5Oth  Annual  Report,.  Board  of  Education,   1904, 

pp.  116-17. 
"Apprenticeship  System,  The."     Report,  M as sachus setts  Bureau  Statistical  Labor,  1906. 

86pp. 
"Discussion  on  How  to  Fit  Industrial  Education  into  our  Course  of  Study."     New  York 

State  Education  Dept.,  Albany,  1906.     43$  University  Convocation,  pp.  59-67. 
"Industrial  Training."     By  C.   R.   RICHARDS.     Special  Report,  Dept.  of  Labor,   New 

York    State,    1909.     500    pp. 
"Manual  Training  Course  of  Study  for  Elementary  Schools."     Report  of  Chicago  Board 

of  Education,  1906-7,  pp.  921-23. 

"Manual  Training  Course  of  Study  for  High  Schools."     Ibid.,  pp.  655-79. 
Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education,   Report  of,   Boston, 

1906.     196  pp.     (Reprinted  by  Teachers  College,  New  York.) 
Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  Report  of,  Boston",  1907.     71  pp. 


Il8  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Massachusetts  Commission  on  Industrial  Education,  Report  o),  Boston,  1908.     682  pp. 

New  Jersey  Commission  for  the  Purpose  of  Investigating  and  Promoting  Industrial  Educa- 
tion, Report  of,  Trenton,  N.J.,  1909.  177  pp. 

New  York  State  Education  Dept.,  Division  of  Trade  Schools.  1908-9.  Circulars  on 
General  Industrial  and  Trade  Schools,  October  i  1908;  Discrimination  between  Trade, 
Technical,  Industrial  and  Manual  Training  Schools,  October  22,  1908;  Evening 
Industrial  and  Improvement  Schools,  Bibliography  of  literature  and  list  of  schools, 
January  i,  1909. 

"Our  Children,  Our  Schools,  and  Our  Industries."  By  A.  S.  DRAPER.  Report  o)  New 
York  State  Education  Department,  Albany,  1908. 

"Principles  and  Methods  to  be  pursued  in  Organizing  Trade  Schools."  By  A.  D.  DEAN. 
Labor  Bulletin,  No.  43,  Commonwealth  of  Massachusetts,  1906,  pp.  313-22. 

PROCEEDINGS  OF  SOCIETIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 

NATIONAL   EDUCATION    ASSOCIATION 

1901 — WARNER,  C.  F.     "Education  for  Trades  in  America,"  pp.  665-74. 
1903 — BALLIET,  T.  M.     "Manual,  Trade  and  Technical  Education,"  pp.  65-71;    "The 
Organization  of  Trade  Schools;   From  the  Point  of  View  of  a  Superintendent," 
pp.  609-12. 

HIGGINS,  M.  P.     "Education  for  the  Trades;    From  the  Point  of  View  of  the 
Manufacturer,"  pp.  597-602. 

CHAMBERLAIN,  ARTHUR,  H.     "The  Demand  for  Trade  Schools;    From^he  Edu- 
cator's Point  of  View,"  pp.  603-7. 

WILLISTON,  A.  L.     "The  Organization  of  Trade  Schools;    From  the  Point  of 

View  of  a  Trade  School  Director,"  pp.  612-17. 
1905 — TILDSLEY,  J.  L.     "The  Study  of  Local  Industry  and  Trade,"  pp.  682-88. 

VANDERLIP,  F.  A.     "The  Economic  Importance  of  Trade  Schools,"  pp.  141-45. 

WALKER,  J.  B.     "What  Should  Be  the  Education  of  a  Business  Man  ?"  pp.  674-78. 

WARNER,  C.  F.     "Industrial  Training  in  Public  Evening  Schools,"  pp.  570-76. 
1906 — "Titles  of  Papers  and  Discussions  in  the  Department  of  Industrial  and  Manual 
Training,  1875-1906,"  pp.  604-7. 

"Bibliography  of  Topics  on  Industrial  Education,"  1863-1906,  pp.  695-96. 

"Bibliography  of  Topics  on  Manual  Training,"  1869-1906,  pp.  700-3. 

"Bibliography  of  Topics  on  Technical  Education,"  1874-1905,  pp.  728-29. 
1907 — LYTTLE,  E.  W.     "Relation  of  High  School  to  Industrial  Life,"  pp.  698-700. 

HARVEY-DYER.     "Is   There   Need   for   Industrial    Schools   for   the   Elementary 
Grades?"  pp.  310-15. 

BROWN,  J.  S.     "Meaning  and  Function  of  Manual  Training,"  pp.  701-5. 

AHRENS,  DRESSLER  KEYES.     "Development   of  a  Course  of  Study  in  Manual 
Training,"  pp.  760-78. 

LEAVITT,  JOHNSON  BURKS.     "Relation  of  Industrial  Education  to  Public  Instruc- 
tion,"    pp.     778-96. 

ALEXANDER,  M.  W.     "Industrial  Training  as  Viewed  by  a  Manufacturer,"  pp 
796-804. 

"Department  of  Technical  Education,  Report,"  pp.  1,031-55. 
1908 — SCHAEFFER,  N.  C.     "Education  for  Avocation,"  pp.  56-57. 

BRERETON,  C.  H.  B.     "The  Problem  of  Vocational  Training  in  London,"  pp. 

58-65. 
DRAPER,  A.  S.     "The  Adaptation  of  the  Schools  to  Industry  and  Efficiency," 

pp.  65-78. 
Department    of    Superintendence,    Symposium;     RUSSELL,    ELLIOTT,    MCELROY, 

LANGLEY,  MORSE,  MARTIN,  HAYES,  HARVEY,  Discussions,  pp.  155-94. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  ng 


1908 — HARVEY,  L.  D.     "  Report  of  Committee  on  Industrial  Education  for  Schools  in 
Rural  Communities,"  pp.  385-95. 

SEERLEY,  H.  H.     "Industrial  Arts  in  The  Normal  Schools,"  pp.  710-15. 

SNEDDEN,  D.  S.     "Differences  among  Varying  Groups  of  Children,"  pp.  752-57. 

Department  of  Manual  Training,  Addresses  on  the  Social  Aspect,  Importance 
and  Function  of  Manual  Training,  pp.  757-98. 

ROWE,  H.  M.     "Commercial  and  Industrial  Education  in  the  Grammar  School 

Course,"    pp.    888-91. 
r   o-) — Department  of  Superintendence. 

Addresses:  BROWN,  E.  E,  "Industrial  Education  as  a  National  Interest";  BUTTER- 
FIELD,  KENYON  L.,  "The  Dignity  of  Vocation  as  a  Fundamental  Idea  in 
Industrial  Education";  COOLEY,  E.  G.,  "Continuation  Schools";  DAVEN- 
PORT, EUGENE,  "Shall  Industrial  Education  be  Treated  as  a  Phase  of  General 
Education  ?  " 

Round  Table  Discussions:  "Industrial  Training."  What  is  Feasible  in  Cities 
of  Fifteen  Thousand  to  Sixty  Thousand  Population  and  of  What  Kinds  ? 
(a)  Grammar  Schools;  (6)  High  Schools;  (c)  Vocational  Schools. 

NATIONAL   SOCIETY    FOR   THE   PROMOTION   OF   INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

Bulletins  of  the  Society: 

No.  i.  Proceedings  0}  the  Organization  Meetings.  (Out  of  print.) 

No.  2.  Selected  Bibliography  on  Industrial  Education,  annotated.  By  C.  R.  RICHARDS. 
July,  1907. 

No.  3.  A  Symposium  by  Employers  and  Employees  in  Regard  to  Industrial  Education. 
Prepared  by  JAMES  P.  HANEY.  September,  1907. 

No.  4.  Industrial  Training  for  Women.     By  FLORENCE  MARSHALL.     October,  1907. 

No.  5.  Proceedings  of  First  Annual  Meeting.  Chicago,  1908.  Part  I.  Addresses  by 
CHAS.  W.  ELIOT,  J.  W.  VAN  CLEAVE,  H.  S.  PRITCHETT,  C.  D.  WRIGHT,  W.  R.  WARNER, 
W.  B.  PRESCOTT,  J.  F.  DEEMS,  L.  W.  MILLER,  A.  L.  WILLISTON,  C.  W.  CROSS, 
H.  SCHNEIDER,  M.  P.  HIGGINS,  ANTHONY  ITTNER.  April,  1908. 

No.  6.  Proceedings  of  First  Annual  Meeting.  Part  II.  Addresses  by  C.  F.  PERRY, 
M.  P.  HIGGINS,  GRAHAM  TAYLOR,  FLORENCE  M.  MARSHALL,  C.  S.  HOWE,  HENRY 
WALLACE,  O.  M.  BECKER,  MRS.  A.  G.  SPENCER,  C.  W.  AMES,  LUKE  GRANT,  E.  G. 
HIRSCH,  L.  D.  HARVEY,  S.  B.  DONNELY,  C.  H.  MORSE,  JANE  ADDAMS,  T.  S.  MOSEBY, 
PAUL  KREUZPOINTER.  May,  1908. 

No.  7.  Circular  of  Information.  "Officers,  Members  Purposes  of  the  Society,  Consti- 
tution." November,  1908. 

No.  8.  Education  of  Workers  in  the  Shoe  Industry.     By  A.  D.  DEAN.     December,  1908. 

No.  9.  Proceedings  of  the  Second  Annual  Meeting,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1908. 

No.  10.  Proceedings  of  the  Third  Annual  Meeting,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1909. 

COUNCIL    OF   SUPERVISORS   OF   THE    MANUAL    ARTS 

Year  Book,  1903. 

HANEY,  J.  P.     "Supervision  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  pp.  13-45. 

PIERCE,  L.     "Bibliography,  including  Articles  on  Manual  and  Industrial  Education," 

pp.  117-33. 
Year  Book,  1904. 

HANEY,  J.  P.     "The  Course  of  Study  in  the  Arts,"  pp.  13-36. 

CREMINS,  JULIA  C.     "Constructive  Work  in  the  Primary  Grade,"  pp.  47-64. 

GRISWOLD,  E.  D.     "Woodwork  in  the  Elementary  Grades,"  pp.  78-87. 

MOHR,  W.  M.     "Working  Drawing  in  Elementary  Schools,"  pp.  88-97. 

BAILEY,  H.  T.     "The  Professional  Schools  of  Paris,"  pp.  129-51. 

DAVIS,  S.  P.     "The  Manual  Arts  in  Extension  Schools,"  pp.  152-69. 

PIERCE,  LOUISA.     "Bibliography  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  p.  177. 


120  NATIONAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

Year  Book,  1905. 

DAVIS,  S.  P.     "Public  Evening  Courses  in  the  Manual  Arts,"  pp.  182-205. 

PIERCE,  LOUISA.     "Bibliography  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  p.  227. 
Year  Book,  1906. 

MURRAY,  M.  W.     "The  Manual-Training  Room  and  Its  Equipment,"  pp.  69-86. 

MATHEWSON,   F.   E.     "First- Year  Drawing  in  the  Technical  High  School,"   pp. 
87-97. 

SHINN,  V.  I.     "Educational  Aspects  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  pp.  165-80. 

PIERCE,  LOUISA.     "Bibliography  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  p.  203. 
Year  Book,  1907. 

SOPER,  MABEL  B.     "Constructive  Work  in  Town  Schools  without  Special  Equip- 
ment," pp.  13-19. 

BOONE,  C.  L.     "Centers  of  Interest  in  Handwork,"  pp.  20-26. 

BENNETT,  C.  A.     "The  Relationship  between  Drawing  and  the  other  Manual  Arts," 
pp.  27-31. 

MURRAY,  M.  W.     "Woodworking  for  Elementary  Schools,"  pp.  51-57. 

DEARBORN,  PIERCE.     "Bibliography  of  the  Manual  Arts,"  p.  139. 

EASTERN    ART    AND    MANUAL   TRAINING    ASSOCIATION 

Proceedings,  1906. 

DEWEY,  J.  F.     "Culture  and  Industrial  Education,"  pp.  21-30. 

WAHLSTROM,  L.  W.     "The  Place  of  Typical  Industries  in  the  Elementary  School," 

pp.  89-107. 
B  ALLIET,  T.  M.     "  Shall  the  Manual-Training  School  become  the  Technical  School  ?  " 

pp.  166-72. 
Proceedings,  1908. 

PARK,  J.  C.     "Fundamental  Principles  in  Manual  Training,"  pp.  15-21. 

SENSON,  T.  D.     "Industrial  Education  as  ap'plied  to  the  Needs  of  Rural  Schools," 

pp.  55-61. 
MORSE,  J.  H.     "The  Time  and  Place  for  Industrial  Education,"  pp.  62-65. 

WESTERN    DRAWING    AND    MANUAL   TRAINING    ASSOCIATION 

Proceedings,  1906. 

ELSON,  W.  H.     "The  Place  of  Arts  in  the  High-School  Course,"  pp.  20-28. 

LANGLEY,  EUPHROSYNE  E.     "Report  of  the  Committee  on  Handicraft  in  the  Publi- 

Schools,"  pp.  69-87. 
Proceedings,  1908. 

THOMPSON,  W.  O.     "The  Place  of  Manual  Arts  in  the  School,"  pp.  28-33. 

BARKER,  J.  T.     "  Manual  Training  in  High  Schools,"  pp.  58-61. 

JOINT    MEETING,    EASTERN    AND    WESTERN    MANUAL   TRAINING    ASSOCIATIONS 

Proceedings   1907. 

RICHARDS,  C.  R.     "  Relation  of  Manual  Training  to  Industrial  Education,"  pp.  77-85. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

American  Academy  of  Political  Science,  Annals  of,  1909. 

"Industrial   Education."     Twenty-three  valuable  contributions  on  the  subject   of 

Industrial  Education.     Vol.  XXXIII,  No.  i,  pp.  187. 
American  Society  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  1906. 

"The  Correspondence  School — Its  Relation  to  Technical  Education  and  Some  of 
its   Results."     Reprinted   in  Science,     Vol.    XXIV,   September    14,    1906,    pp. 
327-34. 
American  Institute  of  Electrical  Engineers,  Proceedings  of,  1909. 

SCHNEIDER,  H.     "Fundamental  Principles  of  Industrial  Education,"  pp.  307-29. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  I2i 


American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  Proceedings  o). 

ALEXANDER,  M.  W.     "Plan  to  Provide  Skilled  Workmen,"     Vol.  XXVIII,  No.  2, 
pp.  487-502- 

RUSSELL,  W.  B.     "Industrial  Education,"     Vol.  XXIX,  pp.  1121-43. 
National  Child  Labor  Committee,  Fifth  Annual  Conference,  1909. 

" Childworkers  of  the  Nation,"  p.  255. 
National  Consumers  League,  1907. 

"Child  Labor  Legislation."     Edited  by  J.  C.  GOLDMARK. 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Engineering  Education,  Proceedings   1909. 

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